test  LW-" 


From  Stereograph,  copyright  71,0;  ty  L 'ndtrtvood  &•  Under-wood 

THE  SIXTY-FIVE-FOOT   PORTRAIT  STATUES  OF  RAMESES    II    BEFORE  ROCK   HEWN 
TEMPLE   OF   IPSAMBUL  (ABU-SIMBEL),  EGYPT 


LIBRARY  of  UNIVERSAL  HISTORY 


AND 


POPULAR  SCIENCE 


A  RECORD  OF  THE- HUMAN  RACE  FROM  THE 

EARLIEST    HISTORICAL    PERIOD  TO  THE   PRESENT  TIME; 

EMBRACING  A  GENERAL  SURVEY  OF  THE  PROGRESS  OF  MANKIND 

IN  NATIONAL  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE,  CIVIL  GOVERNMENT, 

RELIGION,  LITERATURE,  SCIENCE  AND  ART 


Complete  in  Twenty-jive   Volumes 

THE  TEXT  SUPPLEMENTED  AND  EMBELLISHED  BY  MORE  THAN  SEVEN  HUNDRED 
PORTRAITS  AND  OTHER  ILLUSTRATIONS.  MAPS  AND  CHARTS 


INTRODUCTION   BY 

HUBERT    HOWE     B  A  N  C  R  O  F  T 

HISTORIAN 

G  r;  (.)  R  ( ;  E  E  n  \v  IN   R  i  N  i:  s    , 

MANAGING    r;i>IT"K 

Reviewed  and  indorsed  by  Fifteen  Professors  in  History  and  Educators  in 
American  Universities,  among  whom  are  the  following  : 


GEORC,!-:    EMORY    FELLOWS,    Ph.D., 
LL.D. 

President,  University  of  Maine 

KEMP    PLUMMER    BATTLE,    A.M., 
LL.D. 

Professor  of  History,   University  of  North  Carolina 

AMBROSE  P.  WINSTON,  Ph.D. 

Assistant  Professor  of  Economics,  Washington  Uni- 
versity 

WILLIAM  R.  PERKINS 

Professor  of  History,  University  of   Iowa 

REV.  GEO.  M.  GRANT,  D.D. 

lirflte  Principal  of  Queen's  University,  Kingston, 
Ontario,  Canada 


MOSES     COIT     TYLER,     A.M.,     Ph.D. 

Late   Professor  of  American   History,  Cornell    Uni- 
versity 

ELISIIA  BENJAMIN  ANDREWS,  LL.D. 
D.D. 

Chancellor.  University  of  Nebrasl  a 

WILLIAM    TORRE Y    HARRIS,    Ph.D. 
LL.D. 

Formerly  United  States  Commissioner  of  Educatior 

JOHN    HANSON    THOMAS    McPHER 
SON,   Ph.D. 

Professor  of  History,   University  of  Georgia 

RICHARD     HEATH     DABNEY.     A.M. 
Ph.D. 

Professor  of  History,  University  01  Virginia 


NEW  YORK  AND  CHICAGO 

THE   BANCROFT  SOCIETY 

1910 


COPYRIGHT,  1908,  BY 
GEORGE  EDWIN  RINE& 


EDUCATIONAL  VALUE 

OF   THE 

STUDY  OF  HISTORY. 


IN  order  to  do  justice  to  the  claims  of  historical  study,  it  can  never  be  neces- 
sary for  us  to  depreciate  those  of  any  other  branch  of  learning.  Properly  con- 
sidered, there  is  no  such  thing  as  rivalry  between  different  spheres  of  knowledge; 
only  emulation,  a  noble  and  helpful  emulation.  All  real  knowledge  is  good,  being 
in  one  way  or  another  a  source  of  power  and  happiness.  The  various  realms  of 
things  known  or  knowable  are  but  co-equal  and  fraternal  states  in  that  vast  con- 
federation which  we  may  call  the  republic  of  science.  No  single  member  of  this 
confederation  is  strong,  none  is  sufficient,  standing  alone.  Each  is  necessary  to 
all,  all  are  necessary  to  each. 

While,  therefore,  no  one  study  may  assert  for  itself  the  whole  of  what  is  valu- 
able, every  study  doubtless  has  its  own  special  value;  and  this  value,  as  in  the 
case  of  a  study  like  history,  it  may  sometimes  be  worth  our  while  to  place  clearly 
before  our  minds,  modestly,  tolerantly,  and  for  the  rightful  purpose  of  forming 
a  just  idea  of  the  particular  good  we  ought  to  expect  and  to  work  for,  in  our  pursuit 
of  it. 

I. 

Probably  that  use  of  the  study  of  history  which  will  first  occur  to  most  persons, 
is  the  one  suggested  by  the  common  conception  of  history  as  an  enormous  body 
of  facts  about  the  past, — the  effort  to  know  and  retain  a  considerable  number  of 
these  facts  being  regarded  as  a  fine  gymnastic  exercise  for  the  faculty  of  memory. 
It  is,  indeed,  quite  astonishing  ho'w  great  a  multitude  of  historical  details — dates, 
names,  and  other  precise  items  about  persons,  cities,  nations,  armies,  political 
parties,  institutions,  and  so  forth — almost  any  person  is  capable  of  carrying  in  his 
memory,  if  only  he  patiently  stores  and  trains  it  in  that  way.  Moreover,  no  one 


vi  EDUCATIONAL  VALUE  OF  HISTORY. 

will  deny  that  there  is  much  convenience  and  delight  in  the  possession  of  a  memory 
like  that, — a  memory  enriched  with  precise  and  various  historical  facts,  all  labeled, 
and  pigeon-holed,  and  ready  for  service  at  a  moment's  call.  Certainly,  a  brilliant 
accomplishment  this  for  conversation;  a  weapon  of  victory  for  public  speech;  in 
hours  of  loneliness  and  suffering,  a  great  solace, — all  of  which  may  be  seen  in  the 
cases  of  certain  famous  men  in  our  country  who  had  such  a  memory,  as  John 
Quincy  Adams,  Theodore  Parker,  Charles  Sumner,  or  James  A.  Garfield. 

On  the  other  hand,  this  particular  use  of  historical  study  is  somewhat  discredited 
among  persons  of  mature  sense,  whenever  it  is  associated  with  either  of  two  prac- 
tical mistakes,  to  which,  indeed,  young  students  of  history  are  liable.  One  of  these 
mistakes  arises  from  a  lack  of  discrimination  as  to  the  relative  value  of  different 
historical  facts;  the  other  from  the  notion  that  the  work  of  memorizing  historical 
facts  is  the  principal  part  of  historical  study.  It  can  hardly  be  wise  to  make  the 
memory  serve  the  purpose  of  an  old-fashioned  garret  in  a  country  house, — a  re- 
ceptacle for  all  sorts  of  odds  and  ends  of  property,  precious  and  worthless.  Surely, 
such  indiscriminate  memorizing  must  be  a  waste  of  energy,  and  the  perversion 
of  a  noble  faculty.  What  is  the  use  of  making  an  effort  to  remember  what  is  use- 
less ?  Besides,  however  valuable  it  may  be  to  store  the  memory  with  well-selected 
dates  and  names  and  other  historical  items,  this  at  best  belongs  among  the  lower 
and  more  mechanic  uses  of  history. 

With  these  qualifications  upon  the  primary  claim  put  forward  on  behalf  of 
historical  study,  we  may  now  pass  on  to  consider  some  claims  which  point  to  mental 
and  even  spiritual  discipline  of  a  far  higher  and  more  complex  kind. 

H. 

One  of  these  higher  benefits  may  be  described  as  that  of  training  the  critical 
faculty,  through  the  effort  to  test  the  evidence  for  and  against  particular  historical 
facts,  or  what  are  alleged  to  be  such.  Perhaps  the  very  hardest  thing  to  get  at  in 
this  world  is  the  truth,  the  very  truth,  especially  the  very  truth  concerning  the  past 
transactions  of  the  human  race.  From  this  point  of  view,  it  is  plain  that  the  study 
of  history  is  something  more  than  the  passive  reading  of  certain  finished  and  fas- 
cinating books,  like  Livy,  for  instance,  or  Gibbon,  or  Thiers,  or  Macaulay,  or 
Prescott,  or  Parkman;  it  is  indeed,  the  resolute  and  attentive  application  of  the 
whole  mind  to  an  immense  and  complicated  subject, — a  process  which  cannot  be 
carried  on  very  long  without  our  running  up  against  questions  of  disputed  fact.  To 
deal  with  these  questions  in  a  manner  to  satisfy  a  truth-loving  mind,  it  will  be 
necessary  for  us  to  look  keenly  into  problems  of  conflicting  testimony,  of  personal 


EDUCATIONAL  VALUE  OF  HISTORY.  vif 

character,  of  the  validity  of  documents,  of  the  meaning  of  words,  of  the  right  method 
of  construction.  I  am  not  now  speaking  of  the  labors  of  professional  historians, 
the  intricacy  and  arduousness  of  which  are  admitted  to  be  great,  just  in  proportion 
to  the  quality  of  their  results.  Even  pupils  at  school,  however,  and  college  students, 
and  the  members  of  historical  clubs,  and  solitary  readers  of  history,  if  they  would 
pursue  this  study  in  the  wisest  and  most  fruitful  way,  must  all  be,  to  some  extent, 
historical  critics;  must  be  alert,  inquisitive,  cautious,  never  credulous,  always  in- 
tolerant of  slovenly  ways;  and  as  far  as  possible,  they  must  try  the  texts  they  are 
reading  by  earlier  texts,  and  especially  by  those  nearest  to  the  times  that  happen  to 
be  under  consideration. 

Who  is  likely  to  overstate  the  educational  value  of  such  a  method  of  study? 
On  the  moral  side,  how  great  it  must  be!  It  is  produced  and  is  nourished  by  a 
conviction  of  the  incomparable  worth  and  sacredness  of  mere  truth  in  itself,  as 
against  all  baser  stuff  in  the  form  of  half-truth,  guess  work,  fables,  or  lies,  and 
this  conviction  is  sure  to  grow  and  to  strengthen  under  such  honest  toil  in  its  serv- 
ice. On  the  purely  mental  side,  how  great  must  be  the  effect  of  such  study, — 
since  it  calls  forth  and  taxes  powers  so  important  as  those  of  analysis  and  com- 
parison, nicety  of  verbal  sense,  literary  insight,  logical  acuteness  and  precision, 
soundness  of  judgment,  and  saving  common  sense. 

ni. 

In  the  next  place,  it  should  not  be  overlooked  that  the  mental  and  moral  dis- 
cipline involved  in  the  study  of  history,  is  of  a  kind  even  broader  and  more  complex 
than  that  required  for  the  ascertainment  and  verification  of  particular  historical 
facts.  That  alone,  as  we  have  just  seen,  is  a  great  task,  calling  for  fine  and  strong 
powers  of  mind ;  it  is  a  task  that  can  perhaps  never  be  perfectly  done  by  any  finite 
being;  and  yet,  even  that,  when  it  is  done  as  well  as  we  can  do  it,  is  not  the  end  of 
historical  study,  but  rather  the  beginning  of  it.  For,  after  you  have  verified  and 
defined  your  facts,  comes  the  still  more  subtle  process  of  discovering  their  causal 
relations, — the  great  play  of  influence  among  human  events,  the  interdependence 
of  events,  the  action  and  reaction  and  counteraction  of  events.  Of  course,  to  do 
this  sort  of  work  hastily,  recklessly,  with  that  tone  of  easy  infallibility  which  some 
historical  students  have  when  passing  judgment  upon  groups  of  facts  in  relation  to 
the  past,  is  probably  not  very  hard, — at  least  for  persons  who  can  do  it  all;  but  to 
one  who  realizes  the  worthlessness,  the  misleading  character,  of  all  mere  assumption 
in  statements  professing  to  be  historical,  and  how  hard  it  must  be  even  approxi- 
mately to  discover  the  actual  relations  of  events,  it  will  be  obvious  that,  aside  from 


viii  EDUCATIONAL  VALUE  OF  HISTORY. 

the  intrinsic  value  of  such  generalizations,  is  the  disciplinary  value  of  the  mental 
and  spiritual  process  of  arriving  at  them.  Certainly,  to  generalize  wisely  from 
sound  historical  data,  is  a  great  exercise  of  the  philosophic  powers;  it  is  a  test  and 
a  development  of  broad-mindedness,  lucidity,  and  vigor  in  reasoning. 

IV. 

Another  benefit  from  historical  study  will  occur  to  us,  when  we  [reflect  that 
such  study  compels  one  to  investigate  and  to  reason  within  the  realm,  not  of  the 
exact  and  of  the  absolute,  but  of  the  approximate  and  the  probable. 

No  doubt  there  is  a  peculiar  educational  value  in  the  study  of  those  sciences 
in  which  the  data  are  precise  or  absolute;  in  which  the  conclusions  are  so,  like- 
wise. History,  however,  deals  with  data  of  a  different  kind, — with  mixed  deeds, 
and  mixed  motives,  and  traits  of  character,  and  experiences  of  human  beings; 
looking  back  into  the  past,  it  draws  some  general  conclusions  from  these  data 
and  applies  them  to  the  present  and  the  future;  it  aims  to  formulate  some  gen- 
eral principles  relating  to  the  collective  human  life  of  this  world,  to  government, 
to  the  working  of  the  social  organism.  But  whatever  history  requires  of  its 
student  or  does  for  him,  it  keeps  him  mostly  within  the  sphere  of  the  approxi- 
mate and  the  probable.  You  cannot  weigh  a  human  motive  or  impulse  as  pre- 
cisely as  you  can  a  chemical  substance.  In  much  of  your  work  as  an  historian, 
you  have  to  balance  one  probability  against  another,  to  estimate  the  operation 
of  spiritual  forces,  to  deal  with  the  inscrutable  mysteries  of  personal  character. 
In  so  many  parts  of  your  work,  you  are  obliged  to  reason  with  caution,  slowly, 
circumspectly,  not  dogmatically;  and  to  realize  the  limitations  upon  the  definiteness 
and  certainty  of  many  of  your  conclusions. 

Well,  is  there  any  special  value  in  such  training  as  this?  It  seems  to  me 
that,  in  a  rather  peculiar  sense,  this  gives  the  very  training  required  for  real 
life;  since  in  real  life  we  are  in  the  sphere  not  of  the  absolute,  but  of  the  rela- 
tive, and  we  have  to  deal  with  the  very  problems  which  the  historian  has  to  deal 
with, — human  character,  human  feelings  and  motives,  probabilities,  and  other 
data  more  or  less  indefinite.  I  would  say  no  word  to  imply  any  disparagement 
of  the  educational  value  of  mathematics,  for  example.  It  has  its  value,  unri- 
valed in  its  kind;  but  he  who  should  apply  the  methods  of  mathematical  reason- 
ing to  the  questions  which  come  up  between  man  and  man  in  real  life,  would 
often  make  most  absurd  mistakes  and  go  far  astray  Historical  study,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  a  study  of  human  nature  on  a  broad  field,  and  for  all  ages;  it  is 
exactly  the  sort  of  training  which  helps  us  to  know  persons  and  affairs  in  real 


EDUCATIONAL  VALUE  OF  HISTORY.  ix 

life,  the  great  types  of  human  character,  the  limited  worth  of  testimony,  the  play 
of  passion  in  interfering  with  reasonable  and  prudent  conduct,  the  probable  con- 
sequences of  any  particular  set  of  outward  conditions.  History  is  the  great  teacher 
of  human  nature  by  means  of  object  lessons  drawn  from  the  whole  recorded  life  of 
human  nature. 

V. 

This  brings  us  naturally  to  the  fifth  benefit  to  be  got  from  historical  study, — 
the  cultivation  of  fair-mindedness  as  a  habit,  and  the  suppression  of  intellectual 
partisanship  with  respect  to  all  subjects  whatsoever. 

No  one  can  pursue  this  study  in  the  right  way,  or  with  any  real  success,  who 
does  not  learn  to  acquire  the  mental  attitude,  not  of  an  attorney  standing  for 
one  side  of  the  question,  but  of  a  judge  standing  for  what  is  true  on  both  sides. 
The  historical  spirit  is  the  judicial  spirit.  However  vast  may  be  his  learning, 
however  splendid  his  style,  whoever  writes  history  in  a  partisan  fashion,  spoils 
to  that  extent  the  genuineness  and  value  of  his  work,  as  any  one  may  observe  by 
the  brilliant  examples  of  Macaulay  and  Froude. 

We  must  not,  we  cannot,  tolerate  in  history,  what  we  art  obliged  to  tolerate 
in  contemporary  comment.  Such  comment  is  almost  inevitably  colored  by  con- 
temporary passion,  is  biased  this  way  and  that  through  contemporary  prejudice, 
through  the  stormy  likes  and  dislikes  that  are  irrepressible  among  men  actually 
engaged  in  the  conflicts  of  their  own  time,  and  having  great  personal  interests 
at  stake.  But  when  it  comes  to  history,  we  demand  something  different.  History 
is  the  comment  made  afterward,  when  the  fight  is  over  and  ended  and  the  com- 
batants are  cold  in  their  graves;  and  the  duty  of  history  is  to  hear  all  sides  and  all 
persons,  to  weigh  all  pleas,  to  sift  all  testimonies,  to  be  fair  to  all.  If,  with  re- 
gard to  living  controversies,  this  attitude  of  fairness  between  opposite  persons 
and  opinions  is  almost  impossible  to  attain,  it  is  by  no  means  easy  of  attainment 
even  with  regard  to  dead  controversies;  it  is,  for  every  topic  in  history,  one  of 
the  last  and  choicest  results  of  spiritual  discipline. 

I  do  not  know  any  other  study  more  likely  than  the  study  of  history,  to  help 
us  to  acquire  intellectual  poise,  justice  in  thought  and  word,  freedom  from  the 
warp  of  undue  sympathy  or  antipathy,  the  judicial  habit.  And  this,  after  all, 
is  a  quality  of  great  influence  and  esteem  in  this  world,  overriden,  as  it  is,  with 
partisanship  of  all  sorts,  and  yet  conscious  that  there  is  a  mental  attitude  nobler 
and  wiser. 


x  liDUCATIONAL  VALUE  OF  HISTORY. 

VI. 

For  the  sixth  benefit  to  be  got  from  historical  study,  I  would  call  attention  to 
its  incomparable  use  in  enlarging  one's  mental  horizon. 

He  who  doe?  not  know  history  must  have  a  very  limited  mental  horizon — a 
horizon  as  wide  only  as  the  time  during  which  he  has  lived.  The  whole  vast 
realm  of  the  past  is  to  him  as  if  it  never  had  been;  he  knows  only  what  has  been 
done  and  enjoyed  and  suffered  by  the  human  family  since  he  arrived  here.  Even 
in  the  case  of  the  oldest  man,  what  is  that  by  comparison  with  all  the  years,  decades, 
centuries,  epochs,  which  have  rolled  over  this  planet  before  the  sound  of  his  foot- 
step was  heard  upon  it,  and  which  have  been  crowded  with  stupendous  transactions 
that  he  is  totally  ignorant  of  except  by  some  sort  of  hearsay,  by  broken  fragments 
of  knowledge  picked  up  from  casual  tradition? 

The  man  who  knows  only  the  time  immediately  around  him,  is  in  a  mental 
condition  somewhat  like  that  of  the  man  who  knows  only  the  place  immediately 
around  him — the  man  who  has  never  traveled,  who  knows  nothing  of  other 
neighborhoods  and  other  peoples.  Such  a  man  must  have  a  very  false  notion 
of  himself  and  others;  his  mind  can  hardly  fail  to  be  full  of  local  prejudice 
and  conceit;  he  lacks  the  necessary  standards  by  which  to  estimate  his  own  size 
and  quality  and  that  of  the  men  and  things  around  him.  Such  a  man  is  neces- 
sarily provincial,  parochial;  his  intellect  is  the  intellect  of  a  villager.  So,  the 
man  who  knows  but  little  of  human  time,  except  what  has  elapsed  since  his  own 
birth,  is  provincial-minded  with  respect  to  vast  tracts  of  human  experience;  his 
mental  horizon  is  necessarily  limited  to  the  petty  circle  of  time  which  surrounds 
his  own  life  in  the  world.  To  such  a  man  history  comes  with  its  power  to  en- 
large his  own  horizon  by  annexing  to  it  the  horizons  of  all  the  generations 
before  him.  History  is  for  tune,  what  travel  is  for  space;  it  is  an  intellectual 
journey  across  oceans  and  continents  of  duration,  and  of  ages  both  remote  from 
our  own  and  vitalized  and  enriched  by  stupendous  events.  There  is  an  old 
aphorism  to  the  effect  that,  "  ignorance  of  what  has  been  done  in  the  world  before 
he  came  into  it,  leaves  a  man  always  a  child."  This,  perhaps,  is  but  a  far-away 
echo  of  the  saying  of  the  Chinese  moralist,  Lao-Tse:  "Man  is  an  infant  born  at 
midnight,  who,  when  he  sees  the  sun  rise,  thinks  that  yesterday  has  never  existed." 
To  him  who  has  not  studiously  opened  those  books  which  tell  of  the  world's  yester- 
day, it  is  as  though  the  world  had  never  had  a  yesterday — as  though  the  world  had 
begun  only  when  he  began. 

There  have  been  many  attempts  to  define  the  essential  difference  between  man 
and  the  other  animals  known  to  us  here.  What  is  to  be  thought  of  this  definition  ? 


EDUCATIONAL  VALUE  OF  HISTORY.  xi 

Man  is  the  history-knowing  animal — the  only  animal  that  can  know  the  past. 
Therefore,  our  conscious  and  cultivated  relation  to  the  past,  through  historical 
study,  develops  in  us  as  human  beings  that  very  attribute  which  distinguishes 
us  from  those  animals  that  are  called  the  brutes. 

VII. 

Perhaps  the  most  impressive  consideration  touching  the  benefit  to  be  derived 
from  historical  study  is  the  one  which  still  remains  to  be  mentioned:  history 
enables  each  generation  of  men  to  profit,  if  they  will,  by  the  experience  of  their 
predecessors, — especially  to  avoid  their  costliest  and  most  painful  mistakes. 
Without  history,  the  only  complete  record  of  human  experiences,  nearly  all  the 
practical  wisdom  of  mankind,  gained  through  innumerable  blunders  and  mishaps, 
would  be  lost,  and  the  same  blunders  and  the  same  mishaps  would  have  to  be  re- 
peated and  to  be  suffered  over  and  over  again  on  the  part  of  successive  generations 
ignorant  of  what  had  happened  before.  A  nation  emerging  from  savagism, 
until  it  has  a  written  record  makes  little  advancement. 

Let  us  suppose  that  the  human  family  should  now  agree  that  history  is  an 
undesirable  branch  of  knowledge;  that  it  should  no  longer  be  cultivated  or 
taught;  that  all  the  books  of  history  which  have  been  written,  from  Herodotus 
down  to  Ranke  and  Stubbs  and  George  Bancroft,  should  be  burned  up,  and  that 
no  more  should  be  written;  that  even  the  documentary  sources  of  history  should 
be  destroyed.  What  would  be  the  effect  of  this  gigantic  piece  of  Vandalism? 
Of  course,  before  many  years,  the  men  who  now  know  something  of  the  past 
would  be  dead,  and  would  have  left  no  successors  to  their  knowledge;  and,  grad- 
ually, nearly  all  remembrance  of  former  times  and  of  the  men  and  the  deeds  and 
the  sufferings  of  former  times,  of  their  mistakes  and  triumphs  and  failures,  would 
be  blotted  out.  Nearly  all  the  lessons  taught  by  the  experience  of  the  human 
family  would  be  forgotten.  Consequently,  to  a  large  extent,  progress  would 
cease;  each  generation,  knowing  but  little  of  what  men  had  learned  before  them- 
selves, would  have  to  begin  nearly  all  experiments  over  again;  and  each  generation 
would  be  liable  to  keep  on  repeating  the  errors  of  its  predecessors,  treading  over 
again  the  same  round  of  blundering  attempts  and  disastrous  failures.  Life  itself, 
or  what  is  called  civilization,  would  still  be  a  laborious  march,  but  it  would  be  a 
march  in  a  treadmill,  wherein  the  feet  seem  to  move,  and  steps  seem  to  be  taken, 
but  no  advance  is  made. 

Whenever  one  is  inclined  to  rate  very  low  the  utility  of  historical  study,  it  may 
be  well  for  him  to  recall  the  fact  that  all  human  progress  depends  on  each  gen- 


xii  EDUCATIONAL  VALUE  OF  HISTORY. 

eration  starting  with  the  advantage  of  the  wisdom  gained  and  accumulated  by  all 
previous  experience,  and  that  history  is  the  temple  in  which  the  records  of  this 
experience  are  stored.  Burn  down  the  temple,  and  you  thereby  destroy  some  of 
the  things  that  are  essential  to  further  progress. 

People  who  do  not  know  history,  are  apt  to  be  presumptuous  and  rash  in  their 
political  methods.  They  go  on  advocating  errors  that  were  exploded  ages  ago; 
trying  political  or  industrial  or  financial  experiments  that  have  been  tried  and 
found  futile  and  disastrous  times  without  number;  taking  false  steps  which  their 
ancestors  had  taken  before  them  and  had  found  to  be  steps  toward  folly  and 
misery;  making  civilization  itself  to  seem  no  longer  a  stream  of  onward  progress, 
but  a  mere  whirlpool,  its  currents  spinning  with  men  and  institutions  round  and 
round  in  a  fierce  motion,  until  at  last  they  all  go  down  and  together  into  some 
central  gulf  of  darkness. 

One  of  the  greatest  and  most  inspiring  teachers  of  history  known  among  us 
during  the  past  forty  years  has  for  his  book-plate  this  motto:  "Discipulus  est 
prioris  posterior  dies."  "To-day  is  the  pupil  of  yesterday."  How  much  would 
To-day  know  if  it  were  not  the  pupil  of  Yesterday?  But  it  is  chiefly  through 
what  we  call  history  that  Yesterday  is  able  to  communicate  to  its  pupil  the  wis- 
dom which  it  has  hoarded.  Moreover,  it  is  because  To-day  learns  wisdom  from 
Yesterday  that  it  is  able  to  teach  wisdom  to  To-morrow;  and  it  is,  also,  by  the 
same  means.  There  are  some  people  who  have  so  intense  an  interest  in  the  imme- 
diate and  tangible  facts  of  life,  that  they  are  accustomed  to  sneer  at  the  past, — 
calling  it  the  dead  past.  After  all,  however,  the  past  is  not  dead,  except  to  persons 
who  are  ignorant  of  it,  or  who  are  themselves  dead  in  their  own  thinking  con- 
cerning it.  Through  the  power  of  history  the  past  does  not  die;  it  is  gifted  with 
a  perpetual  life,  and  it  reaches  forward  with  a  strong  and  helpful  hand  into  the 
times  that  now  are  and  are  to  be. 

I  remember  that  once  a  student,  in  a  thesis  which  he  was  reading,  used  a  pretty 
figure  about  history.  "History,"  said  he,  "is  only  a  stern  light  on  the  ship  in 
which  we  are  making  life's  voyage."  I  asked  him  to  consider  whether  he  was 
quite  right  in  describing  history  as  "only  a  stern  light."  Of  course,  even  a  stern 
light  is  something,  but  it  is  not  all  that  our  life-ship  needs.  How  about  a  bow 
light,  also, — a  light  that  may  throw  some  gleam  across  the  waters  into  which  we 
are  advancing?  So  even  though  it  might  hurt  the  neatness  of  the  image,  we 
should  probably  improve  its  accuracy,  by  saying,  that  history  is  not  only  a  stern 
light,  but  a  bow  light  as  well:  it  flashes  its  rays  far  back  over  those  rough  waters 
through  which  our  ship  has  been  ploughing,  and  it  throws  at  least  some  illumination 
forward  upon  the  deeps  of  time  toward  which  we  are  about  to  sail. 


EDUCATIONAL  VALUE  OF  HISTORY.  xiii 

VIII. 

Upon  the  whole,  then,  it  may  fairly  be  said,  that  by  withdrawing  now  and 
then  from  the  present,  and  by  making  tours  of  studious  observation  into  the 
past,  we  greatly  enlarge  our  knowledge  and  our  capacity  for  knowledge;  we  teach 
ourselves  toleration,  and  even  sympathy,  for  types  of  person  and  society,  for 
opinions  and  for  courses  of  action,  quite  unlike  our  own;  we  become  more  truly 
catholic  and  cosmopolitan;  we  become  more  modest,  too,  by  realizing  that  mighty 
persons  and  mighty  peoples  have  lived  in  this  world  and  left  it  ages  before  we  came 
into  it;  we  learn  to  understand  better  our  own  place  in  the  general  movement  of 
time  and  events,  and  how  to  adjust  ourselves  to  both  for  the  greater  service,  for 
the  more  perfect  happiness,  of  ourselves  and  others. 

If,  indeed,  this  be  a  just  account  of  the  matter,  perhaps  we  shall  not  deem  it 
an  extravagance  to  say,  as  was  lately  said  by  a  sober-minded  English  critic,  that 
"history  is  the  central  study  among  human  studies,  capable  of  illuminating  and 
enriching  all  the  rest." 

IX. 

I  should  be  sorry  to  come  to  the  end  of  this  discussion  without  a  word  as  to 
the  importance  of  arranging  for  the  study  of  history  upon  a  wise  plan,  that  is, 
upon  a  generous  and  a  comprehensive  plan.  Perhaps  in  no  other  study  are 
pettiness  and  provincialism  more  incongruous  than  in  this  study.  Not  even 
patriotism  is  a  sufficient  justification  for  limiting  our  historical  readings  to  our 
own  country.  We  Americans  have  a  right  to  be  glad  and  proud  over  the  strong 
enthusiasm  for  the  nation  which  now  fills  every  part  of  it.  One  manifestation 
of  this  robust  patriotic  ardor  is  to  be  seen  in  the  extraordinary  interest  now  felt 
among  us  in  American  history.  Never  before  has  American  history  been  so  much 
written,  or  so  well  written;  never  before  has  it  been  so  eagerly  studied.  This  is 
well.  History,  like  charity,  should  begin  at  home;  but  neither  charity  nor  his- 
tory should  end  there.  Our  present  danger  is  of  so  magnifying  the  importance 
of  the  history  of  our  own  country  as  to  forget  the  importance  of  attending  to 
that  of  other  countries  also.  The  present  popularity  of  American  history  is  really 
a  thing  of  recent  growth.  I  can  well  remember  when  it  was  difficult  to  convince 

Americans  that  American  history  was  not  only  important  but  fascinating, even 

by  comparison  with  the  history  of  modern  Europe,  or  of  ancient  and  mediteval 
times.  Apparently,  this  truth  has  been  at  last  so  well  learned  by  us,  that  another 
truth  is  now  liable  to  be  forgotten,  namely  the  intellectual  harm  of  a  too  exclusive 
study  of  American  history.  Our  own  country  deserves  our  best  thoughts,  our 
highest  and  holiest  enthusiasm.  But  to  study  our  own  history  unduly,  and  to  the 
exclusion  of  that  of  other  times  and  nations,  is  to  dwarf  the  mind,  promote  pro- 
vincialism and  breed  ignorance.  To  the  average  Frenchman,  the  history  of  France 


xiv  EDUCATIONAL  VALUE  OF  HISTORY. 

stands  for  a  history  of  all  the  world.  What  happens  or  has  happened  outside  of 
France  is  of  too  little  importance.  So  the  Spaniard,  and  much  so  the  Englishman 
and  the  American.  The  egotism  of  ignorance  is  the  result;  the  remedy,  a  general 
knowledge  of  all  times  and  places  with  that  special  attention  to  our  own  people 
which  a  proper  love  of  country  incites.  Even  American  history  cannot  be  properly 
learned,  if  learned  altogether  apart  from  other  history.  "Without  clear  notions 
of  general  history,"  said  Edward  Freeman,  "the  history  of  particular  countries 
can  never  be  rightly  understood."  To  no  other  country,  perhaps,  is  this  remark 
more  applicable  than  it  is  to  our  own.  Why  our  ancestors  came  to  America,  and 
how,  and  what  ideas  they  brought  with  them,  and  what  sorts  of  people  they  were, 
and  what  they  did  here,  and  how  they  fared  in  the  land,  and  how  they  were  in- 
terfered with  and  helped  or  hindered  by  the  peoples  of  western  Europe  from  among 
whom  they  had  come,  and  how  at  last  they  threw  off  such  interference,  and  how 
they  have  got  on  since  then  with  themselves  and  with  the  rest  of  the  world,  and 
how  they  stand  to-day  as  regards  all  these  matters,  are,  indeed,  the  great  topics 
of  what  we  call  American  history,  but  they  are  likewise  topics  of  European  history 
as  well.  We  commonly  think  of  American  history  as  beginning  with  the  year 
1492.  These  four  centuries  of  American  history  cannot  be  truly  known  by  any 
one  who  does  not  also  know  something,  really  considerable,  of  the  histories  of 
Spain,  France,  Holland,  and  England,  during  the  same  time. 

If,  however,  we  cannot  understand  American  history  without  knowing  modern 
European  history,  neither  can  we  know  modern  European  history  without  a  fair 
knowledge  of  the  history  of  Europe  during  the  Middle  Ages  and  in  the  ancient 
times.  But  how  shall  we  know  the  history  of  mediaeval  and  of  ancient  Europe, 
unless  we  become  acquainted  with  the  remoter  races  from  whom  these  earliest 
Europeans  were  derived,  and  the  countries  from  which  they  came,  and  the  ideas 
they  brought  with  them  thence,  and  their  subsequent  relations  therewith  ? 

Thus,  we  reach  the  broad  principle  that,  as  there  is  a  certain  unity  in  the  life 
of  the  human  family,  so  there  is  a  certain  unity  in  its  history  also;  that  no  nation 
has  ever  lived  without  an  original  kinship  with  other  nations,  without  more  or 
less  contact  with  other  nations,  without  having  its  destinies  interfered  with  and 
influenced  by  other  nations.  Consequently,  no  part  of  history  can  be  truly  known 
without  knowing  something  of  all  parts.  The  ideal  of  the  historical  student 
should  be  to  know  the  life  of  his  own  country  as  a  constituent  part  of  the  general 
life  of  mankind.  Thus,  the  study  of  American  history  must  be  preceded  or  at 
least  accompanied  by  the  study  of  Universal  History. 


AUTHOR'S  PREFACE 


TO   THE 


REVISED  EDITION 


This  "  Library  of  Universal  History  " — the  last  and  greatest  of  the  author's 
series  of  works  on  the  world's  history — first  appeared  in  1890,  and  was  the  result 
of  years  of  labor  on  the  part  of  the  author,  who  produced  this  work  himself 
wholly  without  assistance;  and  it  is,  therefore,  entirely  the  author's  own  work, 
he  having  had  no  assistants  or  colaborers  in  its  preparation.  In  other  words, 
it  is  the  author's  life  work. 

This  being  a  newly  revised,  enlarged  and  improved  edition  of  the  "  Library 
of  Universal  History  " — the  work  of  revision  being  done  wholly  by  the  author 
himself — a  few  prefatory  remarks  by  him  may  not  be  out  of  place  in  this  con- 
nection. Circumstances  and  events  made  necessary  a  complete  revision  and 
remaking  of  the  plates  of  the  entire  work,  with  many  new  and  improved  features, 
among  which  is  the  analytical  side  index  found  on  every  page  throughout  the 
work,  which  serves  the  purpose  of  a  full  and  complete  table  of  contents. 

Other  important  features  of  improvement  are  the  smaller-sized  pages  and  the 
single-measure  pages  instead  of  the  original  double  columns,  and  the  plan  of 
having  every  page  of  the  text  a  full  and  solid  page  of  reading  matter,  while 
all  the  illustrations  are  also  full  page.  The  valuable  historical  maps — many  of 
which  were  made  from  the  author's  own  drawings — are  retained  in  this  revised 
work. 

The  new  archaeological  discoveries  in  the  Nile  and  Tigris-Euphrates  valleys 
are  noted  in  their  proper  places  in  the  sections  on  the  histories  of  Egypt  and 
Chaldaea.  The  recent  events  in  every  part  of  the  world  are  given  their  due 
prominence — the  events  embracing  the  closing  years  of  the  nineteenth  and  the 
opening  years  of  the  twentieth  century. 

New  historical  matter  has  been  inserted  in  the  various  portions  of  the  entire 
work,  and  every  effort  has  been  made  to  make  it  a  work  fully  abreast  of  the 
times. 

The  author  has  also  made  a  new  and  improved  arrangement  of  the  entire  book, 

which  will  now  consist  of  fifteen  superb  volumes  of  no  less  than  five  thousand 

xvii 


AUTHOR'S   PREFACE   TO   THE   REVISED   EDITION. 

pages.  The  subjects  of  the  work  have  been  thoroughly  rearranged  in  new  divi- 
sions under  the  system  of  chapters  and  sections,  so  as  to  make  the  plan  of  the 
book  more  logical  than  in  the  previous  editions.  On  the  whole,  the  chapters  are 
more  numerous  and  smaller  than  in  the  former  editions,  so  as  to  make  the  work 
more  logical  and  convenient  in  its  topical  arrangement.  With  slight  variations, 
)the  old  chronological  order  of  subjects  has  been  retained  in  the  revised  work,  and 
the  synchronistic  plan  of  the  book,  instead  of  the  ethnic  plan,  is  also  preserved, 
as  this  is  generally  recognized  as  the  better  method  of  presenting  the  world's  his- 
tory to  the  general  reading  public,  either  as  a  work  for  general  reading  or  for 
reference,  because  this  plan  avoids  the  frequent  repetition  necessary  in  a  work 
on  the  world's  history  based  on  the  ethnic  plan,  and  because  the  contemporary 
history  of  all  branches  of  the  human  race  can  thus  be  held  up  to  the  view  of  the 
general  reader  or  the  special  student. 

As  to  the  educational  value  of  Universal  History  there  can  be  no  dissenting 
opinion.  This  fact  has  been  recognized  in  all  ages.  A  few  quotations  from 
eminent  men  of  various  epochs  may  not  be  out  of  place  in  this  connection : 

"  Not  to  know  what  happened  before  we  were  born  is  to  remain  always  a  child, 
for  what  were  the  life  of  man  did  we  not  combine  present  events  with  the  recol- 
lections of  past  ages." — CICEEO. 

"  Universal  History  makes  a  man  a  citizen  of  all  nations,  a  contemporary  of  all 
ages." — HERSCHELL. 

"  Without  clear  notions  of  Universal  History,  the  history  of  particular  coun- 
tries can  never  be  rightly  understood." — FREEMAN. 

"  History  gratifies  the  curiosity  of  the  reader  about  the  past,  modifies  his  views 
of  the  present,  and  his  forecast  of  the  future." — SEELEY. 

"  History  is  a  voice  forever  sounding  across  the  centuries  the  laws  of  right  and 
wrong." — FEOUDE. 

"  It  is  because  to-day  learns  wisdom  from  yesterday  that  it  is  able  to  teach 
wisdom  to  to-morrow." — TYLER. 


Lancaster,  Pa.,  June  11, 


CONTENTS  OF  VOLUME  I. 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  VALUE  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  HISTORY. ...       v 

AUTHOR'S   PREFACE xv 

INTRODUCTION    21 

CHAPTER    I.— ANCIENT    EGYPT    AND    ETHIOPIA. 

SECTION       I. — The  Ancient  Nile  Valley 37 

SECTION      II. — Sources  of  Egyptian  History 40 

SECTION    III. — Old  and  Middle  Empires  in  Egypt 43 

SECTION     IV. — The  New  Empire  in  Egypt 50 

SECTION       V. — Egyptian  Civilization 65 

SECTION     VI. — Egyptian  Religion  and  Mythology 92 

SECTION  VII. — Ancient  Ethiopia 107 

CHAPTER    II.— CHALD.EA,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 

SECTION         I. — The  Ancient  Tigris-Euphrates  Valley 113 

SECTION       II. — Sources  of  Chaldee-Assyro-Babylonian  History 122 

SECTION      III. — Chaldaean,  or  Early  Babylonian  Empire 125 

SECTION      IV. — Chaldaean  Civilization 133 

SECTION        V. — The  Old  Assyrian  Empire 141 

SECTIQN      VI. — New,  or  Lower  Assyrian  Empire 172 

SECTION    VII. — Assyrian  Civilization 218 

SECTION  VIII. — The  Later  Babylonian  Empire 243 

SECTION      IX. — Babylonian  Civilization 259 

SECTION       X. — Chaldee-Assyro-Babylonian  Cosmogony  and  Religion .  .  .  286 

•fac 


xx  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER    III.— PHOENICIA    AND    SYRIA. 

SECTION       I. — Phoenicia  and  Its  People 325 

SECTION     II. — Tyre  and  Sidon 32g 

SECTION  III. — Phoenician  Commerce  and  Colonies 330 

SECTION    IV. — Phoenician  Arts  and  Civilization 333 

SECTION      V. — Phoenician  Religion 336 

SECTION    VI. — Ancient  Syria — Damascus .  .  .  .  .  .^.  .  . , 


•  ¥*^*&-rzz**z<* 


MAP  OF  THE 

ANCIENT  HISTORICAL  WORLD 

SHOWING  THE  CAUCASIAN  NATIONS  < 

By  I.  S.  Clare 
SCALE  OF  MILES. 


Aryan,  or  Indo  European  Nations  Colored     Red 


INTRODUCTION. 


HISTOKY  is  a  record  of  events  which  have  occurred  among  mankind ; 
embracing  an  account  of  the  rise  and  fall  of  nations,  and  other  great 
mutations  which  have  affected  the  political  and  social  condition  of  the 
human  race.  In  a  more  limited  sense,  History  is  a  record  of  the  prog- 
ress of  mankind  in  civilization ;  and,  therefore,  deals  especially  with 
those  nations  which  have  performed  great  achievements  and  exerted  a 
commanding  influence  upon  the  fortunes  of  the  human  race.  The 
History  of  Civilization  is  that  department  of  History  which  treats  of 
the  progress  of  different  nations  in  the  arts,  sciences,  literature  and 
social  culture.  The  Philosophy  of  History  treats  of  the  events  of  the 
past  in  connection  with  their  causes  and  consequences,  and  deduces 
from  them  certain  principles,  which  may  serve  as  a  guide  to  statesmen 
in  conducting  the  affairs  of  nations.  Thus,  History  has  been  called 
"philosophy  teaching  by  example;"  and,  as  a  celebrated  writer  has 
observed:  "Social  advancement  is  as  completely  under  the  control  of 
natural  law  as  is  bodily  growth.  The  life  of  an  individual  is  a  minia- 
ture of  the  life  of  a  nation."  Sacred  History  is  that  which  is  con- 
tained in  the  sacred  scriptures,  as  distinguished  from  Profane  History, 
as  recorded  in  other  books.  Ecclesiastical  History  is  the  History  of 
the  Christian  Church ;  while  Civil  or  Political  History  deals  with  the 
rise,  progress  and  fall  of  nations. 

Chronology  is  that  department  of  History  which  treats  of  the  pre- 
cise time  or  date  of  each  event  with  respect  to  some  fixed  time  called 
an  era  or  epoch.  Chronology  and  Geography  have  been  called  "the 
two  eyes  of  History."  The  one  tells  when,  the  other  where,  events 
have  occurred.  Christian  nations  compute  time  from  the  birth  of 
Christ ;  while  Mohammedan  nations  reckon  from  the  Hegira,  or  Mo- 
hammed's flight  from  Mecca,  which  event  occurred  in  the  year  622  of 
the  Christian  era.  The  Ancient  Greeks  dated  from  the  first  Olympiad, 
776  years  before  the  Christian  era ;  the  Ancient  Romans  from  the 
founding  of  Rome,  753  years  before  the  Christian  era;  and  the  An- 
cient Babylonians  from  the  Era  of  Nabonassar,  747  years  before  the 
Christian  era.  No  dates  can  be  established  with  certainty  for  events 
in  Ancient  History  of  any  period  more  than  five  centuries  before 

Christ. 

91 


History 
Defined. 


History  of 
Civiliza- 
tion. 

Philos- 
ophy of 
History. 


Sacred 

and 

Profane 
History. 

Ecclesi- 
astical 
and  Civil 
History. 


Chronol- 
ogy. 


INTRODUCTION. 


Ethnol- 
ogy, 

Archaeol- 
ogy, Phil- 
ology, 
Anthro- 
pology. 


Ancient, 
Mediaeval 

and 
Modern 
History. 


Sources  of 
History. 

Pre- 
historic 
Races. 


Parian 
Marble. 


Assyrian 
Canon. 


Canon  of 
Ptolemy. 


Concerning  the  human  race  outside  of  nations,  there  is  much  im- 
portant and  interesting  knowledge  furnished  by  different  sciences. 
Among  these  sciences,  as  aids  to  History  proper,  are  Ethnology,  or 
the  science  of  the  various  races  or  types  of  mankind;  Archaeology,  or 
the  science  of  the  ancient  works  of  man;  Philology,  or  the  science  of 
language;  and  Anthropology,  or  the  science  which  deals  with  man  in 
natural  history. 

History  is  generally  divided  into  three  great  epochs — Ancient  His- 
tory, Mediaeval  History  and  Modern  History.  Ancient  History  be- 
gins with  the  first  appearance  of  historic  records,  and  ends  with  the 
fall  of  the  Western  Roman  Empire,  A.  D.  476.  Mediaeval  History, 
or  the  History  of  the  Middle  Ages,  extends  from  the  fall  of  Rome, 
A.  D.  476,  to  the  Discovery  of  America,  A.  D.  1492.  Modern  His- 
tory embraces  the  period  from  the  Discovery  of  America  to  the  pres- 
ent time.  Sometimes,  however,  the  world's  history  is  divided  into  only 
two  great  periods — Ancient  and  Modern;  Ancient  History  embracing 
the  whole  period  before  the  fall  of  Rome,  A.  D.  476,  and  Modern 
History  comprising  the  entire  period  since  that  event.  This  double 
division  is  perhaps  the  more  logical  of  the  two,  as  ancient  civilization 
passed  away  with  the  extinction  of  the  Western  Roman  Empire,  while 
modern  nations  and  modern  institutions  took  their  rise  from  that  point. 
The  triple  division,  however,  is  the  more  convenient,  and  for  that 
reason  we  shall  follow  it  in  this  work. 

The  three  sources  of  History  are  written  records,  architectural 
monuments  and  fragmentary  remains.  Several  races  of  men  have  dis- 
appeared from  the  globe,  leaving  no  records  inscribed  upon  stone  or 
parchment.  The  existence  and  character  of  these  people  can  only  be 
inferred  from  fragments  of  their  weapons,  ornaments  and  household 
utensils,  found  in  their  tombs  or  among  the  ruins  of  their  habitations. 
Among  these  races  were  the  Lake-dwellers  of  Switzerland;  the  pre- 
historic inhabitants  of  the  Age  of  Stone  and  the  Age  of  Bronze  of 
the  British  Isles ;  the  builders  of  the  shell-mounds  of  Denmark  and 
India,  and  the  Mound-builders  of  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

The  discovery  of  monuments  of  great  antiquity  has  aided  vastly  in 
ascertaining  the  date  of  ancient  events.  The  Parian  Marble,  brought 
to  England  from  Smyrna  by  the  Earl  of  Arundel,  contains  a  chrono- 
logical arrangement  of  important  events  in  Grecian  history  from  the 
earliest  period  to  355  B.  C.  The  Assyrian  Canon,  discovered  by  Sir 
Henry  Rawlinson,  the  great  English  antiquarian,  consists  of  a  num- 
ber of  clay  tablets,  constructed  during  the  reign  of  Sardanapalus,  and 
containing  a  complete  plan  of  Assyrian  chronology,  verified  by  the 
record  of  a  solar  eclipse  which  must  have  occurred  June  15,  763  B.  C. 
The  Canon  of  Ptolemy,  a  Babylonian  record  having  important  bear- 


CELTIC  ORNAMENTS  OF  THE  AGES  OF  BRONZE  AND   IRON 


INTRODUCTION. 


ing  upon  Assyrian  dates,  is  another  trustworthy  ancient  document, 
giving  important  dates  in  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  history.  The 
Fasti  Capitolini,  discovered  at  Rome,  partly  in  1547  and  partly  in 
1817  and  1818,  contains  in  fragmentary  records  a  list  of  Roman 
magistrates  and  triumphs  from  the  beginning  of  the  Roman  Republic 
to  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Augustus.  The  Rosetta  Stone,  discovered 
by  a  French  military  engineer  during  Bonaparte's  expedition  to  Egypt 
in  1798,  contains  inscriptions  in  the  Greek  and  Egyptian  languages, 
the  deciphering  of  which  has  led  to  the  discovery  of  a  key  to  the 
meaning  of  the  hieroglyphic  inscriptions  on  the  Egyptian  monuments. 
The  fragmentary  writings  of  Sanchoniathon  give  us  some  light  on 
Phoenician  history ;  those  of  Berosus  on  Babylonia  and  Assyria ;  Mane- 
tho's  lists  of  the  thirty  dynasties  of  Egyptian  kings  afford  us  valuable 
information;  and  the  works  of  Herodotus,  the  "Father  of  History," 
have  given  us  a  graphic  account  of  the  ancient  nations — their  annals, 
manners  and  customs,  as  well  as  a  geographical  description  of  the 
countries  which  they  inhabited. 

The  imposing  temples  and  palaces  of  Egypt,  Assyria  and  India 
have  only  afforded  historic  materials  since  the  diligent  research  of 
European  scholars  and  antiquarians  has  succeeded  in  deciphering  the 
inscriptions  which  they  bore.  Within  the  present  generation  the  dis- 
coveries of  these  European  orientalists  have  added  wonderfully  to  our 
knowledge  of  primeval  ages,  and  explained  in  a  remarkable  manner 
the  brief  allusions  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures.  Thus  within  the  last 
century  the  discovery  of  the  Rosetta  Stone,  the  deciphering  of  the 
Egyptian  hieroglyphics,  and  the  labors  of  those  learned  French  Egyp- 
tologists, Champollion  and  Mariette,  have  given  us  a  flood  of  new  light 
upon  ancient  Egyptian  times;  while  the  exhumations  and  discoveries 
of  those  celebrated  English  archaeologists  and  antiquarians,  Layard 
and  Rawlinson,  in  the  Tigris-Euphrates  valleys,  have  almost  recast  the 
history  of  Assyria,  Chaldaea  and  Babylonia;  and  the  patient  explora- 
tions and  exhumations  of  that  German  savant,  Dr.  Schliemann,  upon 
the  site  of  ancient  Troy,  between  the  years  1869  and  1873,  have  been 
rewarded  with  the  discovery  of  many  interesting  architectural  remains 
and  furnished  new  illustrations  of  the  "tale  of  Troy  divine." 

In  more  recent  times  very  many  new  archaeological  discoveries  have 
been  made  in  the  Tigris-Euphrates  region  and  in  the  Nile  valley  by 
English,  French,  German  and  American  antiquarians.  Thus  during 
the  last  three  decades  of  the  nineteenth  century  many  important  facts 
bearing  upon  Chaldaean  and  Assyrian  cosmogony  and  the  early  history 
of  mankind  were  brought  to  light  by  the  deciphering  of  inscriptions 
upon  Chaldaean  and  Assyrian  tablets  by  those  celebrated  English 
Assyriologists,  Sayce  and  George  Smith.  The  last  years  of  the  nine- 


Fasti 
Capi- 
tolini. 

Rosetta 
Stone. 


Sancho- 
niathon, 

Berosus, 
Manetho, 

Herod- 
otus. 


Re- 
searches 
of  Euro- 
pean Ori- 
entalists. 


Cham- 
pollion 
and 

Mariette. 

Layard 
and  Raw- 
linson. 

Dr. 

Schlie- 
mann. 


Recent 
Archaeo- 
logical 
Dis- 
coveries. 


Sayce and 
George 
Smith. 


INTRODUCTION. 


Petrie. 


Hil- 
precht. 


Hebrew 
Scrip- 
tares. 


Writ- 
ings of 
Berosus 


The  An- 
cient His- 
torians. 


Grecian 

His- 
torians. 

Roman 

His- 
torians. 

OldTesta- 
ment  and 
Josephus. 

Church 

His- 
torians. 


teenth  century  and  the  first  years  of  the  twentieth  were  marked  by 
many  important  archaeological  discoveries  in  Egypt,  bearing  upon  the 
antiquity  of  that  renowned  land,  the  most  important  being  those  of 
the  celebrated  English  Egyptologist,  Professor  William  Flinders 
Petrie,  among  the  ruins  of  Abydos.  The  last  years  of  the  nineteenth 
century  and  the  first  years  of  the  twentieth  were  also  signalized  by 
the  wonderful  archaeological  discoveries  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Baby- 
lonian city  of  Nipur,  by  the  distinguished  German  American  oriental- 
ist, Dr.  Herman  Vollrath  Hilprecht,  in  charge  of  the  four  Babylonian 
exploring  expeditions  under  the  auspices  of  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania. 

The  oldest  remaining  books  are  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  which,  in  the 
Mosaic  cosmogony,  describe  the  origin  of  the  universe  and  the  creation 
of  the  first  pair,  Adam  and  Eve,  and  their  fall  from  a  state  of  inno- 
cence and  purity ;  the  murder  of  their  son  Abel  by  his  brother  Cain ; 
the  genealogy  of  the  patriarchs  of  the  antediluvian  period ;  the  destruc- 
tion, by  a  great  Deluge,  of  the  whole  human  race,  except  Noah  and 
his  wife  and  his  three  sons  and  their  wives,  and  their  salvation  in  the 
Ark,  which  rested  on  Mount  Ararat,  in  Armenia ;  the  vain  attempt 
of  Noah's  descendants  to  avert  a  similar  punishment  by  building  the 
great  Tower  of  Babel,  and  the  consequent  Confusion  of  Tongues  and 
the  Dispersion  of  the  human  race,  which  led  to  the  peopling  of  every 
quarter  of  the  globe  by  the  descendants  of  Noah's  sons,  Shem,  Ham 
and  Japheth.  The  writings  of  Berosus,  the  Babylonian  historian,  also 
describe  the  Creation,  the  Deluge  and  the  Confusion  of  Tongues. 
Every  civilized  nation  and  savage  tribe  has  some  vague  idea  of  a 
great  flood  that  once  covered  the  earth,  but  they  all  differ  in  their 
details. 

We  have  already  alluded  to  the  writings  of  Sanchoniathon,  the 
Phoenician  historian;  Berosus,  the  Babylonian;  Manetho,  the  Egyp- 
tian; Herodotus,  the  "Father  of  History,"  and  the  great  Hebrew 
lawgiver,  Moses,  the  earliest  sacred  historian.  Herodotus  was  the  first 
of  Grecian  historians.  Other  Greek  writers  of  history  were  Thucyd- 
ides,  the  great  philosophic  historian ;  Xenophon,  the  writer  of  charm- 
ing historical  romances ;  Ctesias ;  Diodorus  Siculus ;  Polybius ;  and 
Plutarch,  the  charming  biographer  of  antiquity.  Ancient  Rome  pro- 
duced Livy,  Tacitus,  Sallust  and  Cornelius  Nepos,  who  have  given  us 
the  facts  of  Roman  history.  For  the  history  of  the  ancient  Hebrews 
we  are  indebted  to  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament  and  the  works  of 
Josephus,  the  celebrated  Jewish  historian,  who  wrote  a  complete  his- 
tory of  his  countrymen  in  Greek.  Among  early  Christian  church  his- 
torians were  the  Roman  Eusebius  and  the  Anglo  Saxon,  the  "Venerable 
Bede."  The  Frenchmen  Comines  and  Froissart  were  celebrated  chron- 


INTRODUCTION. 


iclers  of  the  Middle  Ages.  The  Italian  Machiavelli  achieved  fame 
by  his  historical  writings.  Among  modern  historians  have  been  many 
who  have  acquired  celebrity  by  their  works.  Such  were  the  great  trio 
of  British  historians  who  lived  in  the  eighteenth  century — Hume,  Gib- 
bon and  Robertson — whose  works  have  ever  since  been  regarded  as 
standards.  In  the  nineteenth  century  England  also  produced  many 
famous  writers  of  history;  such  as  Macaulay,  Carlyle,  Grote,  Thirl- 
wall,  Froude,  Lingard,  Arnold,  Alison,  Freeman,  Rawlinson,  Green, 
Knight,  Merivale,  Milman,  Hallam  and  others.  France,  in  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  had  her  Rollin  and  Voltaire ;  and  in  the  nineteenth 
century  she  produced  Thiers,  Guizot,  Sismondi,  Mignet,  Michelet  and 
the  brothers  Thierry.  In  the  eighteenth  century  Germany  had  a  great 
ecclesiastical  historian  in  the  person  of  Mosheim ;  and  in  the  nineteenth 
century  a  host  of  German  historians  gave  to  the  world  the  benefit 
of  their  scholarly  researches,  among  whom  we  may  mention  Niebiihr, 
Neander,  Rotteck,  Heeren,  Schlosser,  Mommsen,  Curtius  and  Leopold 
von  Ranke.  Among  American  historians  the  most  renowned  have  been 
Hildreth,  Prescott,  Bancroft,  Motley,  Lossing  and  Parkman. 

All  traditions  and  written  accounts  point  to  Asia  as  the  cradle  of 
the  human  race.  According  to  the  prevalent  belief  of  modern  schol- 
ars, mankind  spent  its  infancy  in  the  region  between  the  Indus  and 
the  Euphrates,  the  Arabian  Sea  and  the  Jaxartes.  The  exact  location 
of  the  Garden  of  Eden,  or  Paradise,  is  not  known.  The  Oriental 
nations  reckon  four  Paradises  in  Asia — one  near  Damascus,  in  Syria ; 
another  in  Chaldam ;  a  third  in  Persia ;  and  a  fourth  in  the  island  of 
Ceylon,  where  there  is  a  lofty  mountain  called  Adam's  Peak. 

Mankind  has  been  classed  by  different  ethnologists  into  a  variety 
of  races  or  types  of  humanity;  the  most  generally  accepted  classifi- 
cation for  the  last  century  being  Blumenbach's  division  into  five  races 
— the  Caucasian,  or  white  race;  the  Mongolian,  or  yellow  race;  the 
Ethiopian,  or  black  race ;  the  American,  or  red  race ;  and  the  Malay, 
or  brown  race.  The  only  race  which  has  figured  in  history  is  the 
Caucasian.  The  history  of  the  civilized  world  is  the  history  of  the 
Caucasian  race.  The  great  historical  nations  have  belonged  to  this 
The  only  nations  outside  of  the  Caucasian  race  which  have 


race. 


Mediaeval 

His- 
torians. 

The  Mod- 
ern His- 
torians. 

British 

His- 
torians 

French 

His- 
torians 

German 

His- 
torians. 


American 

His- 
torians. 

Asia,  the 
Cradle  of 
theEu- 

manRace. 


Races  of 
Mankind. 


attained  to  any  degree  of  civilization  or  played  the  least  part  in  his- 
tory have  been  several  Mongolian  nations,  as  the  Chinese,  the  Japanese, 
the  ancient  Parthians,  and  the  modern  Tartars,  Turks  and  Magyars, 
or  Hungarians,  and  two  American  Indian  nations,  the  ancient  Peru- 
vians and  the  Aztecs,  or  ancient  Mexicans.  The  Ethiopian  and 
Malay  races  have  never  had  any  history  or  any  civilization. 

The  origin  of  nations  has  been  involved  in  obscurity,  which  has  only 
quite  recently  been  removed  by  the  diligent  study  and  the   patient 


The  Cau- 
casian, 
the  His- 
torical 
Race. 


Recent 
Philolog- 
ical Re- 
searches. 


INTRODUCTION. 


Branches 
of  the 
Cauca- 
sian Race. 


The 
Aryans  in 

their 

Primeval 

Home  in 

Central 

Asia. 


research  of  modern  European  scholars.  Investigation  into  the  affini- 
ties of  the  various  languages  has  given  us  some  new  knowledge  upon 
this  interesting  and  important  subject.  Comparing  the  languages  of 
most  of  the  modern  European  nations  with  those  spoken  by  the  ancient 
Romans,  Greeks,  Medes,  Persians  and  Hindoos  we  observe  that  all 
these  languages  had  a  common  origin,  entirely  different  from  those 
of  the  ancient  Chaldees,  Assyrians,  Babylonians,  Phoenicians,  Hebrews, 
Arabs  and  Egyptians;  these  latter  being  related  to  each  other,  but 
not  to  those  of  the  nations  previously  named.  The  former  of  these 
languages  are  called  Aryan,  the  latter  Semitic  and  Hamitic;  while  the 
Central  Asian  Tartar  nomads  have  a  language  called  Turanian. 

Because  of  these  affinities  of  language,  modern  philologists  have 
divided  the  Caucasian  race  into  three  great  branches — the  Aryan, 
Indo-European,  or  Japhetic ;  the  Semitic,  or  Shemitic ;  and  the  Hami- 
tic. The  Aryan,  or  Indo-European,  branch  embraces  the  Brahmanic 
Hindoos,  the  ancient  Medes  and  Persians,  and  all  the  European  na- 
tions, except  the  Laps  and  Fins  of  Northern  Europe;  the  Magyars, 
or  Hungarians,  the  Ottoman  Turks,  and  the  Basques  of  Northern 
Spain,  all  five  of  whom  belong  to  the  Turanian,  or  nomadic  branch  of 
the  Mongolian  race.  The  descendants  of  Europeans  and  European 
colonists  in  America  and  other  quarters  of  the  globe,  of  course,  also 
belong  to  the  Aryan  race.  The  Semitic  branch  comprises  the  He- 
brews, or  Israelites,  the  Arabs,  and  the  ancient  Syrians,  Assyrians, 
Babylonians,  Phoenicians  and  Carthaginians.  The  Hamitic  branch 
included  the  ancient  Chaldees,  Egyptians  and  Ethiopians.  The  Aryan 
branch  is  called  Japhetic,  because  it  has  been  supposed  to  be  descended 
from  Japheth;  while  the  Semitic  branch  is  regarded  as  the  posterity 
of  Shem,  and  the  Hamitic  branch  as  the  children  of  Ham. 

The  name  Aryan  means  tiller  of  the  soil;  wherein  this  race  has  dif- 
fered from  the  Turanian,  or  nomadic  races  of  Central  Asia.  The 
ancestors  of  the  Indo-European  nations,  the  primitive  Aryans  in  pre- 
historic ages,  occupied  that  region  of  Central  Asia  in  which  was  located 
the  ancient  city  of  Bactra,  the  modern  Balk,  in  Turkestan.  Here 
this  primeval  race  lived  and  attained  to  a  considerable  degree  of  civili- 
zation; practicing  agriculture  and  cattle-raising,  and  some  of  the 
mechanical  arts,  such  as  weaving  and  sewing,  metallurgy,  pottery- 
manufacture,  etc.  They  were  also  somewhat  skilled  in  architecture, 
navigation,  mathematics  and  astronomy.  They  considered  marriage 
a  sacred  contract;  and,  unlike  other  Asiatic  peoples,  they  shunned 
polygamy.  Children  were  regarded  as  the  light  of  the  family  circle, 
as  shown  by  the  meaning  of  the  names — boy,  bestoteer  of  happinest; 
girl,  she  that  comes  rejoicing;  brother,  supporter;  sister,  friendly. 
With  regard  to  the  Aryan,  or  Indo-European  race  it  is  found  that 


INTRODUCTION.  37 

the  names  of  many  common  objects  are  very  much  alike  in  all  the 
languages  and  dialects  spoken  by  these  people.  Thus  the  word  house 
in  Greeek  is  domos;  in  Latin  domus;  in  Sanskrit,  or  ancient  Hindoo, 
dama;  in  Zend,  or  ancient  Persian,  demana;  and  from  the  same  root 
is  derived  our  word  domestic.  The  words  for  ploughing,  grinding 
corn,  building  houses,  etc.,  are  also  found  almost  similar.  This  demon- 
strates that  these  nations  must  have  had  a  common  origin,  and  that 
they  engaged  in  farming,  making  bread  and  building  houses.  They 
also  counted  up  to  one  hundred,  and  domesticated  the  most  important 
animals — the  cow,  the  horse,  the  sheep,  the  dog,  etc. ;  and  were  ac- 
quainted with  the  most  useful  metals,  and  armed  with  iron  hatchets. 
The  primitive  Aryans  were  monotheists  in  religion  and  worshiped  a 
personal  God.  The  Aryan,  or  agricultural  races  had  the  patriarchal 
form  of  government,  like  the  Turanian,  or  nomadic  races  of  Central 
Asia ;  but  the  father,  or  head  of  the  family,  was  sub j  ect  to  a  council 
of  seven  elders,  whose  chief  was  king,  and  from  whose  decision  there 
was  an  appeal  to  heaven  in  the  ordeal  of  fire  and  water.  The  Aryans 
followed  their  leaders  and  kings,  and  fixed  the  distinction  between  right 
and  wrong  by  laws  and  customs.  All  these  facts  can  be  proven  by 
the  evidence  of  language,  on  the  authority  of  Max  Miiller  and  other 
eminent  philologists. 

The  rapid  increase  of  the  Aryan  population  in  its  primeval  home      Aryan 
led  to  a  division  of  this  primitive  people  into  three  branches — one  ^ons^n'to 
crossing  the  Hindoo  Koosh,  overspreading  the  plateau  of  Iran  and      Persia, 
laying  the  foundations  of  the  great  Median  and  Medo-Persian  Em-     Europe1 
pires ;  another  moving  southeastward  across  the  Indus  and  becoming 
the  ancestors  of  the  Brahmanic  Hindoos ;  and  a  third  migrating  into 
Europe  in  successive  hordes,  as  represented  by  the  Pelasgic,  Celtic, 
Teutonic   and  Slavonic   nations,   whose   descendants  now   occupy  the 
greater  part  of  Europe.     These  Aryan  immigrants  into  Europe  seized 
the  lands  of  the  original  Turanian  inhabitants,  whose  descendants  are 
represented  by  the  modern  Basques  of  Northern  Spain  and  the  Laps 
and  Fins  of  Northern  Russia  and  Scandinavia. 

The  Aryan  immigrants  into  Europe  occupied  different  portions  of  Aryans  in 
the   continent.     The   Pelasgians    settled   in   the   Grecian   and   Italian     Eur°Pe- 
peninsulas  of  Southern  Europe,  and  were  the  forefathers  of  the  Hel-      Pelas- 
lenes,  or  Greeks,  and  the  Latins,  or  Romans,  the  ancestors  of  the  mod-      g14118- 
em  Italians.     The  Celts  spread  over  Western  Europe,  embracing  the      Celts. 
Iberian,  or  Spanish  peninsula,  Gaul  (now  France  and  Belgium)  and 
the  British  Isles,  and  became  the  ancestors  of  the  Lusitanians  of  ancient 
Portugal,  the  Iberians  and  Numantians  of  ancient  Spain,  the  ancient 
Gauls  and  Belgae,  and  their  respective  Latinized  descendants,  the  mod- 
ern Portuguese,  Spaniards,  French  and  Belgians,  as  well  as  the  Irish, 


INTRODUCTION. 


Teutons. 


Sla- 
vonians. 


Leader- 
ship of  the 
Aryans. 


The  Se- 
mitic and 

Hamitic 
Nations. 


Diversity 
of  Occu- 
pations 
and  In- 
dustries 


the  Highland  Scotch,  and  the  ancient  Britons  and  their  posterity,  the 
Welsh,  the  Cornish  and  the  Bretons  of  Western  France.  The  Teu- 
tons, or  Germans,  occupied  Central  Europe  and  the  Scandinavian 
peninsula,  and  became  the  progenitors  of  the  Goths  and  Vandals,  and 
the  modern  Germans,  Danes,  Swedes,  Norwegians,  Norman-French, 
Dutch,  or  Hollanders,  and  the  Anglo-Saxons,  or  English,  and  their 
kindred  in  the  British  colonies  and  in  the  United  States  of  America. 
The  Slavonians  overspread  the  vast  steppes  of  Eastern  Europe ;  and 
their  descendants  are  represented  by  the  ancient  Sarmatians  and  the 
modern  Russians,  Poles,  Bohemians,  Servians,  Bulgarians,  Bosnians 
and  Croatians. 

The  Aryan,  or  Indo-European  branch  of  the  Caucasian  race  has 
always  played  the  leading  part  in  civilization,  and  has  been  the  most 
active,  enterprising  and  intellectual  in  the  world's  history.  The  Ar- 
yans have  always  been  peculiarly  the  race  of  progress,  and  have  sur- 
passed all  others  in  the  development  of  civil  liberty,  the  perfection  of 
law,  social  advancement,  and  their  progress  in  art,  science,  literature, 
invention,  and  mode  of  living.  The  Aryans  alone  have  originated, 
developed  and  perfected  constitutional,  representative  and  republican 
government.  The  present  and  the  future  belong  wholly  to  this  high- 
est type  of  human  development.  The  Semitic  branch  of  the  Caucasian 
race  has  been  noted  for  religious  development,  having  given  rise  to 
three  great  monotheistic  religions — Judaism,  Christianity,  and  Islam, 
or  Mohammedanism.  The  Hamitic  branch  were  famous  builders,  and 
their  architectural  structures  in  Chaldaea  and  Egypt  were  noted  for 
their  massive  grandeur.  The  Semitic  and  Hamitic  nations,  after  at- 
taining a  certain  degree  of  civilization,  remained  stationary ;  and  their 
civilization  has  utterly  perished. 

After  the  dispersion  of  mankind  into  various  quarters,  men  chose 
different  occupations  and  modes  of  living,  according  to  the  diversities 
of  their  places  of  residence.  The  inhabitants  of  steppes  and  deserts, 
interspersed  only  here  and  there  with  fertile  pasture  grounds,  became 
shepherds  and  roved  from  place  to  place,  with  their  tents  and  herds, 
thus  becoming  nomads,  or  wanderers ;  and  their  occupation  was  the 
breeding  of  cattle  and  sheep.  Those  who  occupied  favorable  districts 
on  the  sea-coast  soon  discovered  the  advantages  of  their  situation,  as 
population  increased  and  their  resources  developed.  They  accordingly 
practiced  navigation  and  commerce,  and  sought  for  wealth  and  com- 
fort, in  furtherance  of  which  objects  they  erected  elegant  dwelling 
houses  and  founded  cities;  whilst  the  inhabitants  of  less  hospitable 
shores  subsisted  by  means  of  fisheries.  The  dwellers  upon  plains 
adopted  agriculture  and  the  peaceful  arts ;  whilst  the  rude  mountain- 
eers gave  themselves  up  to  the  chase,  and,  moved  by  a  violent  impulse 


INTRODUCTION. 


for  freedom,  had  their  delight  in  wars  and  battles.  By  taming  wild 
cattle,  man  very  early  procured  for  himself  domesticated  animals. 

Commerce  was  a  mighty  factor  in  the  development  and  civilization 
of  the  human  race  and  in  the  intercourse  among  nations.  Those  who 
occupied  fruitful  plains,  or  the  banks  of  navigable  rivers,  carried  on 
an  inland  traffic.  The  inhabitants  of  the  sea-shores  conducted  a  coast- 
ing trade.  At  first  men  exchanged,  or  bartered,  one  article  for  an- 
other. At  a  later  period  they  adopted  the  plan  of  fixing  a  certain 
specified  value  upon  the  precious  metals,  and  employed  coined  money 
as  an  artificial  and  more  convenient  medium  of  exchange.  The  dwell- 
ers in  towns  occupied  themselves  with  mechanical  employments  and 
inventions,  and  cultivated  the  arts  and  sciences  for  the  comfort,  happi- 
ness and  refinement  of  life  and  for  mental  culture  and  development. 

In  the  course  of  time  nations  became  divided  into  civilized  and  un- 
civilized, as  their  intellectual  development  was  furthered  by  talents  and 
commerce,  or  retarded  and  cramped  by  dullness  and  by  isolation  from 
the  rest  of  mankind.  Uncivilized  nations  are  either  wild  hordes,  under 
an  absolute  and  despotic  chief  who  wields  unlimited  power  over  his  fol- 
lowers, or  wandering  nomadic  tribes,  guided  by  a  leader  who,  as  father 
of  the  family,  exercises  the  functions  of  lawgiver,  governor,  judge  and 
high-priest.  Neither  the  wild  hordes,  under  their  despotic  chiefs,  oc- 
cupying the  unknown  regions  of  Africa  (Negroes),  the  steppes  and 
lofty  mountain  ranges  of  Asia,  the  primeval  forests  of  America  (In- 
dians), and  the  numerous  islands  of  Oceanica  (Malays),  nor  the 
nomadic  races  with  their  patriarchal  government,  find  any  place  in 
history.  This  subject  only  deals  with  those  nations  who  have  attained 
to  some  degree  of  civilization  and  have,  from  similarity  of  customs  and 
for  mutual  advantage,  engaged  in  peaceful  intercourse  with  each  other, 
and  who  have  made  considerable  progress  in  the  science  of  civil  govern- 
ment and  the  development  of  political  institutions. 

The  earliest  civilizations  were  those  found  in  the  Tigris-Euphrates 
and  Nile  valleys,  in  the  Hindoo  peninsula,  and  in  the  remote  empire 
of  China.  The  exact  origin  of  the  ancient  nations  and  civilizations 
is  lost  in  the  dimness  of  their  remote  antiquity.  These  regions  were 
richly  endowed  by  nature  with  the  resources  necessary  for  sustaining 
a  dense  population ;  and  the  earliest  historic  empires  accordingly  took 
their  rise  in  the  rich  alluvial  lands  watered  by  the  Tigris  and  the 
Euphrates  in  South-western  Asia  and  by  the  Nile  in  North-eastern 
Africa. 

Historical  Asia  is  South-western  Asia.  There  the  Hamitic  empire 
of  Chaldaea  and  the  Semitic  empires  of  Assyria,  Babylonia,  the  Syrians, 
the  Hebrews  and  the  Phoenicians  played  their  respective  parts  in  the 
world's  historic  drama.  There  the  Aryan  race  first  came  upon  the 


Com- 
merce and 
Human 
Develop- 
ment. 


Civilized 
and  Un- 
civilized 
Nations. 


TheEarli- 
est  Civil- 
izations. 


South- 
western, 
or  Histor- 
ical Asia. 


30 


INTRODUCTION. 


Northern 
and  Cen- 
tral, or 
Turanian 
Asia. 


Southern 
and  East- 
ern Asia, 
or  India, 
China  and 
Japan. 


Northern, 
or  His- 
torical 
Africa. 


scene  in  the  appearance  of  the  great  Median  and  Medo-Persian  Em- 
pires and  the  Grseco-Macedonian  Empire  of  Alexander  the  Great  and 
his  successors,  followed  by  the  Parthian,  Eastern  Roman  and  New 
Persian  Empires.  There  the  Semitic  race  again  prevailed  in  the  sud- 
den rise  of  Mohammed's  religion  and  the  great  empire  founded  by  his 
successors.  There  the  Turanian  race  first  played  a  historic  part  in 
the  conquests  by  the  Seljuk  Turks  from  Tartary,  the  two  centuries  of 
warfare  between  Christendom  and  Islam  for  the  possession  of  the  Holy 
Land  as  represented  in  the  Crusades,  the  terrible  scourges  of  the  con- 
quering Mongol  and  Tartar  hordes  of  Zingis  Khan  and  Tamerlane, 
and,  lastly,  the  rise  of  the  now-decaying  Mohammedan  empires  of  the 
Ottoman  Turks  and  the  modern  Persians. 

All  that  part  of  Asia  north  of  the  Altai  mountains,  now  known  as 
Siberia,  is  a  comparatively  barren  region  and  was  unknown  in  an- 
tiquity. Central  Asia,  now  called  Tartary  and  Turkestan,  was  an- 
ciently known  as  Scythia,  and  was  then  as  now  occupied  by  nomadic 
hordes  who  have  roamed  over  those  extensive  pastoral  lands  for  count- 
less ages,  with  their  flocks  and  herds,  having  no  fixed  abodes  or  cities 
and  no  other  political  arrangements  than  the  patriarchal  form  of  gov- 
ernment. Accordingly,  the  Turanian  races  inhabiting  that  region 
have  played  no  part  in  history,  except  that  the  Tartar  and  Mongol 
races  inhabiting  those  vast  steppes  have  at  times  overrun  and  conquered 
the  civilized  countries  of  South-western  and  Southern  Asia. 

Thus,  excepting  Egypt  and  Ethiopia — the  two  great  Hamitic  na- 
tions of  Africa — all  the  ancient  Oriental  nations  had  their  seat  in  Asia. 
The  populous  empires  of  India,  China  and  Japan — though  they  con- 
tributed their  jewels,  spices,  perfumes  and  silks  to  the  luxury  of  the 
people  of  South-western  Asia — were  almost  unknown  to  the  ancient 
Greeks  and  Romans;  and  though  their  art  and  literature  are  vast, 
these  had  no  influence  upon  the  general  course  of  the  world's  progress. 
China  and  Japan  are  two  ancient  empires  which  have  continued  to 
exist  to  this  day,  the  former  with  but  little  change.  The  nations  of 
Farther  India  are  almost  unknown  to  history;  while  Hindoostan,  the 
seat  of  a  dense  Aryan  population  from  the  earliest  antiquity,  and  one 
of  the  oldest  civilizations,  as  attested  by  vast  architectural  remains  and 
a  copious  religious  literature,  was  unknown  to  history  until  Alexander's 
invasion,  and  became  successively  the  prey  of  Arabian,  Afghan,  Tar- 
tar, Mongol,  Portuguese  and  British  conquest. 

The  only  historical  part  of  Africa  is  Northern  Africa,  or  that  part 
of  the  continent  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean  sea  and  watered  by 
the  Nile;  and  the  only  great  nations  of  ancient  Africa  were  Egypt, 
Ethiopia  and  Carthage.  All  the  rest  of  the  vast  continent  was  a  dark 
region  wholly  unknown  to  the  ancient  civilized  nations  of  South-westem 


INTRODUCTION. 


Asia  and  Europe ;  and  only  within  the  last  five  centuries  have  Its  West- 
ern, Southern  and  Eastern  coasts  been  discovered,  explored,  taken  pos- 
session of  and  colonized  by  Europeans ;  while  the  interior  has  been  but 
partially  visited  by  European  explorers  within  the  last  hundred  years, 
and  occupied  by  European  nations  only  recently. 

Southern  Europe  was  the  seat  of  the  greatest  two  nations  of  antiq- 
uity— the  Greeks  and  the  Romans,  the  Pelasgic  nations  of  the  Aryan 
race — the  former  by  their  literature  and  philosophy  and  their  political 
freedom,  and  the  latter  by  their  laws  and  political  institutions,  influ- 
encing all  future  European  nations.  The  other  nations  of  ancient 
Europe  were  barbarians,  many  of  whom  were  conquered  and  civilized 
by  the  Romans.  The  overthrow  of  the  Roman  dominion  in  the  fifth 
century  after  Christ  entirely  changed  the  current  of  European  history 
by  a  redistribution  of  its  population  through  the  migrations  and  con- 
quests of  its  vast  hordes  of  Northern  barbarians,  who  fourteen  cen- 
turies ago  laid  the  foundations  of  the  great  nations  of  modern  Europe. 
America  and  Oceanica  were  wholly  unknown  to  the  ancient  inhabitants 
of  the  Old  World,  and  have  only  occupied  the  field  of  history  since 
their  discovery  and  settlement  by  Europeans  within  the  last  five  cen- 
turies. 

History  deals  only  with  civilized  man,  and  history  proper  only  begins 
with  the  origin  of  civilized  nations  and  with  the  commencement  of 
historical  records.  Accordingly,  the  cradles  of  civilization — if  not 
the  cradles  of  the  human  race — were  the  fertile  alluvial  Tigris-Eu- 
phrates and  Nile  valleys,  where,  with  the  dawn  of  civilization,  flourished 
the  old  Chaldaean  and  Egyptian  monarchies — the  most  ancient  of  his- 
torical states  of  antiquity.  History  begins  with  Egypt,  the  oldest  of 
historical  nations. 

Civilization  and  human  progress  have  in  the  main  followed  the  course 
of  the  sun.  In  the  East  arose  those  great  nations  and  cities  from 
which  other  lands  have  derived  a  part  of  their  civil  institutions,  their 
religion  and  their  culture.  In  the  East,  the  land  of  the  camel,  the 
"ship  of  the  desert,"  originated  that  caravan  trade  which  contributed 
so  vastly  to  human  progress.  To  protect  themselves  against  the  rude 
Bedouins,  the  Oriental  merchants  traveled  in  large  companies,  often 
armed,  conveying  their  wares  upon  the  backs  of  camels  from  place  to 
place.  These  commercial  journeys  gave  rise  to  many  commercial 
cities  and  centers  of  trade,  occasioned  the  erection  of  store-houses  and 
caravansaries,  and  led  to  intercourse  between  distant  nations  and  to 
an  interchange  of  productions,  religious  institutions  and  social  policy. 
Temples  and  oracles  of  celebrity  often  served  for  markets  and  ware- 
houses. 


Ancient 
Civilized 

Europe, 

or  Greece 

and 

Rome. 


America 

and 
Oceanica 


The 

Cradles  ot 
Civiliza- 
tion. 


Ancient 
Oriental 
Civiliza- 
tion and 
Institu- 
tions. 


Caravan 
Trade. 


INTRODUCTION. 


Oriental 
Religions 
and  Gov- 
ernment. 


Character 

of  the 
Orientals. 


Asia,  the 
Birth- 
place of 
Religions 
and  Des- 
potism. 


In  the  East  all  the  great  religions  took  their  rise  and  gained  their 
full  development,  as  the  Orientals  have  always  been  the  most  contem- 
plative on  all  that  concerns  man's  relations  to  the  Deity.  In  the 
East  the  patriarchal  and  -despotic  governments  alone  prevailed. 
Where  the  systems  of  castes  prevailed,  the  priests  and  soldiers  con- 
stituted the  privileged  classes,  from  both  of  which  ultimately  arose  the 
unlimited  kingly  power;  and  the  officers  of  state  were  regarded  as 
slaves  and  menials,  without  personal  rights  or  property.  The  king, 
who  was  regarded  with  almost  as  much  reverence  as  the  Deity,  dis- 
posed of  the  lives  and  possessions  of  his  subjects  at  will.  He  gave 
and  took  away  at  his  pleasure,  and  no  one  dared  to  appear  before  him 
without  prostrating  his  body  on  the  ground.  He  lived  like  a  god,  in 
the  midst  of  pleasure  and  enjoyment,  surrounded  by  hosts  of  slaves, 
who  obeyed  his  wishes,  executed  his  orders  and  submitted  themselves  to 
his  pleasures ;  and  he  was  surrounded  by  all  the  wealth  and  possessions, 
by  all  the  pomp  and  splendor,  of  the  world.  In  these  Oriental  gov- 
ernments laws  and  human  rights  were  nowhere ;  despotism  and  slavery 
prevailed ;  and  consequently  there  was  no  incentive  to  vital  energy  and 
no  capability  of  permanent  civilization.  For  this  reason  all  Oriental 
states  have  become  the  easy  prey  of  foreign  conquerors,  and  their 
early  civilization  has  perished  or  remained  stationary. 

By  original  disposition,  the  Orientals  are  more  inclined  to  contem- 
plative ease  and  en j  oyment  than  to  active  exertion ;  and  for  this  reason 
they  have  never  attained  to  freedom  and  spontaneous  activity,  but  have 
quietly  submitted  to  their  native  rulers,  or  groaned  under  the  yoke  of 
foreign  oppressors.  After  reaching  a  certain  degree  of  civilization 
they  submitted  themselves  to  an  unenterprising  pursuit  of  pleasure, 
and  thus  by  degrees  became  slothful  and  effeminate.  Their  practice 
of  polygamy  further  promoted  their  effeminacy.  Oriental  architec- 
ture was  noted  for  its  gigantic  designs  and  its  imposing  grandeur ;  but 
it  did  not  display  the  symmetry,  harmony  and  utility  characteristic 
of  the  architecture  of  a  free  people.  Slavery  paralyzed  every  out- 
ward manifestation  of  Oriental  life. 

Besides  being  the  cradle  of  the  human  race,  Asia  is  the  birth-place 
of  the  great  religions  and  the  home  of  absolute  despotism.  The  two 
great  pantheistic  religions — Brahmanism  and  Buddhism ;  also  the  great 
monotheistic  religions — Zoroastrianism,  Judaism,  Christianity  and 
Mohammedanism — arose  in  Asia ;  while  Asiatic  governments  to-day  are 
what  they  have  been  from  time  immemorial — absolute  monarchies,  or 
despotisms ;  no  republic  or  constitutional  monarchy  ever  having  flour- 
ished on  Asiatic  soil,  except  the  insular  Empire  of  Japan  in  our  own 
time,  which  has  recently  become  a  constitutional  monarchy,  modeled 


INTRODUCTION. 


33 


after  the  British  government,  and  the  little  republic  said  to  have  been 
discovered  recently  in  Manchooria  by  the  Russians. 

Europe,  on  the  contrary,  inhabited  by  the  progressive  Aryan  race, 
has  carried  political  institutions  to  the  highest  state  of  development ; 
civil,  political  and  religious  liberty  having  had  a  steady  growth. 
Asiatic  civilization  has  been  stationary,  while  European  civilization  lias 
been  progressive.  The  Asiatics  are  passive,  submissive,  given  to  con- 
templative ease  and  disinclined  to  active  exertion.  The  Europeans 
are  active,  energetic,  vigilant  and  aggressive.  Europe  has  also  col- 
onized other  portions  of  the  globe ;  the  greater  part  of  the  present 
populations  of  North  and  South  America  being  the  descendants  of 
Europeans  who  settled  in  the  New  World,  and  drove  away,  or  assim- 
ilated with,  the  aborigines ;  while  Europeans  have  also  settled  in  por- 
tions of  Africa,  Asia  and  Oceanica.  The  Asiatics,  on  the  other  hand, 
do  not  colonize;  though  in  recent  years  large  numbers  of  Chinese  and 
Japanese  have  migrated  to  various  parts  of  Oceanica  and  America, 
not  as  colonists,  but  settling  among  the  people  of  the  countries  to  which 
they  had  migrated. 

In  the  Prehistoric  Ages — that  is,  the  ages  before  recorded  history — 
the  patriarchal  form  of  government  prevailed;  each  father,  or  head 
of  a  family,  governing  the  whole  family.  Since  the  formation  of 
nations  there  have  been  various  forms  of  governments — Autocracy, 
despotism,  or  absolute  monarchy,  where  the  supreme  power  is  vested  in 
the  monarch  himself,  without  any  restraint  or  limitation;  Limited,  or 
constitutional  monarchy,  where  the  power  of  the  monarch  is  limited  by 
law  or  by  constitutions  giving  the  nobility,  or  aristocracy,  and  the 
masses  some  share  in  the  government;  Aristocracy,  or  government  by 
nobles  or  aristocrats ;  Theocracy,  or  government  by  the  Church  in  the 
name  of  the  Deity ;  Hierarchy,  or  government  by  priests ;  Pure  dem- 
ocracy, or  government  by  the  people  directly ;  and  Representative 
democracy,  or  republicanism,  or  government  by  the  people  through 
their  chosen  representatives.  There  have  been  several  kinds  of  repub- 
lics— aristocratic,  where  the  few  have  governed,  and  democratic,  where 
the  masses,  through  their  chosen  representatives,  are  the  rulers.  The 
best  examples  of  pure  democracy  were  the  governments  of  ancient 
Athens  and  ancient  Rome,  where  the  people  themselves  assembled  in  a 
bodv  for  purposes  of  legislation.  This  form  of  democratic  govern- 
ment can  only  exist  where  a  state  consists  of  but  a  single  city  with  its 
surrounding  territory,  as  in  the  cases  of  the  two  ancient  republics  just 
cited;  and  is  utterty  impossible  among  a  population  distributed  over 
a  vast  extent  of  country.  Late  in  the  nineteenth  century  Switzerland 
became  practically  a  pure  democracy  by  the  adoption  of  the  initiative 
and  referendum,  by  which  the  people  petition  for  laws  and  vote  for 

VOL.    1. 3 


Europe 
and  Asia 
Com- 
pared. 


Forms  of 
Govern- 
ment 


INTRODUCTION. 


Savage 
Govern- 
ments. 


Oriental 
Despot- 
isms and 
Castes. 


Varieties 

of 
Religion. 


Monothe- 
ism,Poly- 
theism. 


their  approval  or  rejection.  Monarchs  are  called  by  different  titles, 
as  Emperor,  King,  Prince,  Duke,  Sultan,  Czar,  Shah  or  Khan,  if  a 
male;  and  Empress,  Queen,  Princess,  Duchess,  Sultana  or  Czarina,  if 
a  female. 

The  savage  and  barbarous  tribes  of  Asia,  Africa,  America  and 
Oceanica  are  governed  by  their  chiefs ;  and  their  governments  are 
simple,  as  were  those  of  all  the  original  nations,  the  chiefs  being  vir- 
tually absolute  monarchs  and  their  governments  being  despotisms. 
Even  the  civilized  Asiatic  nations  have  always  been  despotisms,  the  only 
exception  being  Japan  in  our  time.  It  was  only  on  the  soil  of  Europe, 
occupied  by  the  progressive  Aryan  race,  that  civil  liberty  was  born 
and  that  the  masses  first  obtained  any  share  of  political  power.  A 
great  hindrance  to  civil  freedom  among  ancient  Asiatic  and  African 
nations  was  the  system  of  castes,  by  which  men  were  separated  accord- 
ing to  their  occupations  and  conditions,  which  were  transmitted  from 
generation  to  generation  without  the  slightest  change.  The  priests, 
who  alone  possessed  a  knowledge  of  religious  customs  and  institutions, 
and  who  bequeathed  their  knowledge  to  their  descendants,  comprised 
the  first  caste.  The  soldiers  constituted  the  second  caste,  and  shared 
with  the  priests  the  government  of  the  people.  The  third  caste  were 
the  tillers  of  the  soil,  the  fourth  caste  the  artisans,  and  the  fifth  caste 
the  shepherds,  who  were  universally  despised.  Any  one  who  violated 
the  rules  of  caste  became  an  outcast.  The  system  of  castes  prevailed 
in  its  purest  state  for  the  longest  time  in  India  and  Egypt. 

Man  is  naturally  a  religious  being.  A  world-wide  religious  senti- 
ment seems  to  prevail,  but  there  have  been  many  varieties  or  mani- 
festations of  this  sentiment.  Thus  we  have  Monotheism,  or  the  belief 
in  one  God ;  Polytheism,  or  the  belief  in  many  gods ;  Pantheism,  or  the 
system  which  regards  the  whole  universe,  with  all  its  laws  and  the 
different  manifestations  of  nature,  as  the  Supreme  Being.  Many 
polytheistic  and  pantheistic  nations  have  made  idols,  or  images,  as 
figures  or  representations  of  their  deities ;  and  for  this  reason  have  been 
called  idolators,  pagans  or  heathen.  The  four  great  monotheistic  re- 
ligions of  the  world  have  been  the  ancient  Persian  religion  of  Zoroaster, 
or  the  religion  of  the  modern  Parsees,  or  fire-worshipers  of  Western 
India ;  Judaism,  or  the  religion  of  the  Jews ;  Christianity;  and  Islam, 
or  Mohammedanism.  The  leading  polytheistic  religions  were  those  of 
the  ancient  Egyptians,  Chaldaeans,  Assyrians,  Babylonians,  Phoenicians, 
Greeks,  Romans  and  Scandinavians.  The  chief  pantheistic  religions 
have  been  the  two  great  religions  of  Hindoo  origin — Brahmanism  and 
Buddhism. 

It  is  believed  that  originally  monotheism  was  universal,  but  that 
sometime  during  the  prehistoric  ages,  after  the  dispersion  of  mankind 


THE  WORLD 

JtCCOHDI  KG   TO 

HtCAT/tUS. 


INTRODUCTION. 


35 


into  various  quarters,  most  nations  fell  into  polytheism  and  idolatry. 
Even  the  polytheistic  religions  recognize  one  Supreme  Being,  who  is 
superior  to  and  above  all  the  other  deities ;  and  for  this  reason  all 
religions  have  been  regarded  as  monotheistic  to  some  extent.  There 
are  also  some  polytheistic  features  about  all  monotheistic  religions,  as 
the  belief  in  the  existence  of  angels,  who,  as  dwelling  in  the  celestial 
world,  are  beings  superior  to  mortals.  Among  ancient  nations  the 
only  truly  monotheistic  religions  were  those  of  the  Hebrews  and  the 
Medo-Persians — the  one  a  Semitic  and  the  other  an  Aryan  people. 

From  time  immemorial,  among  pagan  and  polytheistic  nations,  there  Idolatry 
has  prevailed  the  custom  of  making  idols,  or  images  of  wood,  stone, 
metal  or  clay,  to  represent  their  deities ;  and  these  have  been  fashioned 
into  a  great  variety  of  forms.  The  idol  was  only  a  visible  symbol  of 
a  spiritual  conception  or  of  an  invisible  power.  Temples  and  altars 
have  been  erected  for  the  worship  of  these  deities ;  and  sacrifices  have 
been  offered  to  them,  partly  to  appease  their  wrath,  and  partly  to 
obtain  their  favor.  These  sacrifices  have  varied  in  character  with  the 
civilization  of  the  people  who  have  offered  them.  The  ancient  Greeks 
and  Romans,  in  their  joyous  festivals  to  their  gods,  socially  consumed 
the  fruits  of  the  earth  and  animals  from  the  firstling  of  a  flock  to  the 
solemn  sacrifice  of  a  hecatomb  (a  hundred  oxen).  Savage  tribes  have 
slaughtered  human  beings  upon  their  altars,  to  appease  by  blood  the 
wrath  of  their  offended  deities.  The  Phoenicians  and  Syrians  placed 
their  own  children  in  the  arms  of  a  red-hot  idol  representing  the  god 
Moloch. 

To  further  delude  the  masses,  the  priests  invented  legends,  fables  and 
myths  about  their  gods,  clothed  them  in  poetic  fancy,  and  thus  orig- 
inated mythology,  or  the  science  of  their  gods.  In  these  legends, 
fables  and  myths,  the  deeds  of  the  different  gods  and  their  dealings 
with  men  were  described  in  enigmatical  allusions,  allegories  and  figura- 
tive expressions.  The  nations  with  the  greatest  amount  of  creative 
imagination  and  religious  impulse  possessed  the  richest  mythology. 
These  stories  of  the  gods  incited  the  people  to  superstition;  and  the 
solemn  worship  in  the  temples  and  sacred  groves,  with  their  mysterious 
ceremonies  and  symbolical  usages,  maintained  a  feeling  of  veneration 
and  religious  awe.  To  inspire  in  the  people  a  feeling  of  the  divine 
presence,  sacred  places  and  temples  were  provided  with  oracles,  from 
which  the  superstitious  multitude  might  get  light  into  the  mysteries 
of  the  future,  in  obscure  and  ambiguous  language.  In  this  way  and 
by  such  means  the  priesthood  swayed  the  masses  in  most  countries ;  and 
thus  secured  power,  honor  and  wealth  for  themselves.  The  people  were 
enslaved  by  ignorance,  credulity,  superstition  and  fear. 


Legends, 
Fables, 
Myths. 


36 


INTRODUCTION. 


BRANCHES    OF    THE    CAUCASIAN,    THE    ONLY   HISTORICAL    RACE. 


1.  ARYAN,  OR  INDO-EUROPEAN  BRANCH. 

1.  Hindoos. 

2.  Medes  and  Persians. 

3.  Hellenes,  or  Greeks. 

4.  Latin,  or  Romanic  Nations. 

1.  Ancient  Romans. 

2.  Italians. 

3.  French. 

4.  Spaniards  and  Spanish  Ameri- 

cans. 

5.  Portuguese  and  Brazilians. 

6.  Flemings,  or  Belgians. 

7.  Roumanians. 

£.  Germanic,  or  Teutonic  Nations. 

1.  Germans. 

2.  Danes.  ~} 

3.  Swedes. 

4.  Norwegians. 

5.  Dutch,  or  Hollanders. 

6.  English    and    Anglo-Americans 

(Anglo-Saxons). 

7.  Scotch  Lowlanders. 

8.  Norman-French. 


r  Scandinavians. 


6.  Celtic  Nations. 

1.  Ancient     Britons,     Gauls     and 

Spaniards. 

2.  Irish,  Welsh,  and  Scotch  High- 

landers. 

3.  Bretons  (West  of  France). 

7.  Slavonic  Nations. 

1.  Russians. 

2.  Poles. 

3.  Bohemians. 

4.  Servians. 

5.  Bulgarians. 

6.  Bosnians. 

7.  Croatians. 
II.  SEMITIC  BRANCH. 

1.  Hebrews,  or  Israelite*. 

2.  Arabs. 

3.  Syrians. 

4.  Assyrians  and  Later  Babyloni- 

ans. 

5.  Phoenicians  and  Carthaginians. 
III.  HAMITIC  BRANCH. 

1.  Chaldees,  or  Early  Babylonians. 

2.  Egyptians  and  Ethiopians. 


BaftrUtt  It 

'  £thlopcs 
b      B*t**i  ci— SH"*" 

^j  Dvrcedet  la. 


a  B  & 


c  « 


jl.    cs»  •**» 

SoM»  M. 


MAP  OF 
THE  WORLD 

According  to 

POMPOM  IS  MELA 

jltouf  A.  0.  SO 


MAP  OF 

THE  WORLD 

ACCORDING  TO 
PTOLEHT 

ABOUT  A. D.  1.60 


CHAPTER  I. 
ANCIENT    EGYPT  AND    ETHIOPIA. 


SECTION  I.— THE  ANCIENT  NILE  VALLEY. 

ALTHOUGH  Asia  was  the  cradle  of  the  human  race,  the  cradle  of  Egypt  the 
civilization  was  in  the  Nile  valley,  which,  from  the  island  of  Elephan-  civil.0 
tine,  in  the  Nile,  northward  to  the  Mediterranean  sea,  a  distance  of  ization. 
five  hundred  and  twenty-six  miles,  was  the  seat  of  ancient  Egypt,  "the 
mother  of  the  arts  and  sciences."  In  Egypt  we  first  find  a  civil  gov- 
ernment and  political  institutions  established ;  and  although  Egypt  may 
not  be  the  oldest  nation,  Egyptian  history  is  the  oldest  history.  The 
monuments,  records  and  literature  of  Egypt  are  far  more  ancient  than 
those  of  Chaldsea  and  India,  the  next  two  oldest  nations.  The  ruins 
and  monuments  of  ancient  civilization  found  in  the  Nile  valley  render 
that  country  one  of  the  most  interesting  on  the  globe.  While  the 
progress  of  other  nations  from  ignorance  and  rudeness  to  art  and 
civilization  may  be  easily  traced,  Egypt  appears  in  the  earliest  twi- 
light of  history  a  great,  powerful  and  highly  civilized  nation ;  and  her 
gigantic  architectural  works  are  the  most  wonderful,  as  well  as  the 
most  ancient  in  the  world,  showing  a  skill  in  the  quarrying,  transport- 
ing, carving  and  joining  of  stone  which  modern  architects  may  admire 
but  are  unable  to  surpass. 

From  the  earliest  antiquity  Egypt  has  been  called  "the  Gift  of  the  TheNile's 
Nile."  From  time  immemorial  this  renowned  land,  in  the  midst  of  overflow, 
surrounding  deserts,  has  been  one  of  the  most  fertile  regions  of  the 
globe,  and  was  in  consequence  the  great  granary  of  antiquity.  This 
unsurpassed  fertility  is  attributable  to  the  annual  overflow  of  the  Nile, 
occasioned  by  the  heavy  rainfalls  in  the  uplands  of  Abyssinia ;  so  that 
this  mighty  stream,  the  only  river  of  Egypt,  in  its  whole  course 
through  the  country  from  south  to  north,  by  its  mud  deposits  renews 
yearly  the  soil  of  this  narrow  valley,  which  really  constituted  ancient 
Egypt,  and  whose  average  width,  from  the  modern  city  of  Cairo  south 
to  the  First  Cataract,  does  not  exceed  fifteen  miles.  The  Nile  dis- 
charges its  waters  into  the  Mediterranean  through  three  distinct  chan- 

37 


ANCIENT  EGYPT    AND    ETHIOPIA. 


Geo- 
graphical 

Divi- 
sions and 
Cities. 


Ancient 
Ethiopia. 


nels,  which  branch  off  from  each  other  about  ninety  miles  from  the  sea, 
and  which  enclose  the  region  called  the  Delta,  from  its  resemblance  in 
form  to  the  Greek  letter  of  that  name.  The  Delta  has  always  been  a 
region  of  unsurpassed  fertility.  The  spontaneous  growth  of  the  date- 
palm  furnished  the  people  with  a  cheap  and  abundant  article  of  food; 
and  the  immense  yield,  with  comparatively  slight  labor,  of  large  crops 
of  cereals,  because  of  the  natural  fertility  of  the  soil,  rendered  this 
region,  from  primitive  times,  capable  of  sustaining  a  dense  population, 
and  made  it  the  primeval  seat  of  organized  human  society. 

Ancient  Egypt  was  divided  into  three  geographical  sections — the 
Thebai's,  or  Upper  Egypt,  in  the  south;  the  Heptanomis,  or  Middle 
Egypt,  in  the  centre;  and  the  Delta,  or  Lower  Egypt,  in  the  north. 
The  chief  city  of  the  Thebai's  was  the  "hundred-gated  Thebes,"  whose 
ruins,  extending  for  seven  miles  on  both  banks  of  the  Nile,  astonish 
the  modern  traveler,  as  he  gazes  upon  the  remains  of  magnificent  tem- 
ples, splendid  palaces,  colossal  statues,  obelisks,  sphinxes,  tombs  hewn 
in  the  solid  rock,  subterranean  catacombs,  and  the  gigantic  statue  of 
Memnon.  Karnak  and  Luxor  are  the  portions  of  Thebes  which  pre- 
sent the  most  stately  ruins,  the  most  imposing  being  the  great  temple 
at  the  former  place.  The  most  ancient  city  of  Upper  Egypt  was  This, 
afterward  called  Abydos.  Other  cities  of  this  section  were  Lycopolis, 
Latopolis,  Antaeopolis  and  Ombos.  The  southernmost  points  of  Egypt 
were  Syene  and  the  island  of  Elephantine,  in  the  Nile.  The  leading 
city  of  the  Heptanomis  was  Memphis,  on  the  west  side  of  the  Nile, 
founded  by  Menes,  the  first  Egyptian  king,  and  whose  wonderful 
ancient  splendor  is  now  attested  by  its  ruins.  In  the  vicinity  of 
Memphis  was  the  famous  Labyrinth,  and  here  also  are  the  great  Pyra- 
mids of  Ghizeh — the  most  imposing  monuments  ever  erected  by  human 
hands.  Other  famous  cities  of  Middle  Egypt  were  Heracleopolis, 
Hermopolis  and  Letopolis.  The  Delta  was,  in  ancient  times,  thickly 
studded  with  cities,  chief  of  which  were  Avaris,  or  Tanis,  Sais,  Bubas- 
tis,  Mendcs,  Rameses,  Heliopolis,  Magdolon,  Pelusium,  Canopus  and 
Hermopolis.  The  famous  Greek  city  of  Alexandria,  on  the  western 
side  of  the  Delta,  was,  in  the  later  days  of  antiquity,  the  metropolis 
of  Egypt,  and  from  its  location  it  became  the  great  commercial  center 
of  the  civilized  world,  while  being  also  the  seat  of  learning  and  civili- 
zation. 

To  the  south  of  ancient  Egypt,  in  the  region  now  embracing  Nubia 
and  Abyssinia,  was  the  ancient  Ethiopia,  whose  people  had  also  at- 
tained a  high  state  of  civilization,  as  is  fully  proven  by  the  existence 
of  ruins  along  that  portion  of  the  Nile  valley  similar  to  those  of  Egypt. 
On  the  west  of  Egypt  was  the  great  Libyan  Desert,  now  called  the 
Sahara. 


THE    ANCIENT.    NILE    VALLEY.  39 

The  population  of  ancient  Egypt  is  known  to  have  been  at  least       The 
five  millions,  and  may  have  been  seven  millions.     They  belonged  to  the      E?VT^ 
Hamitic  branch  of  the  Caucasian  race,  and  originally  came  from  Asia,      tians. 
being,  according  to  the  Hebrew  account,  the  descendants  of  Misraim, 
the  grandson  of  Ham.     They  were  a  brown  race,  mild  in  their  general 
character,  polished  in  their  manners,  and  were  by  nature  obedient  and 
religious.     They  were  cleanly  in  their  habits  and  food,  and  in  conse- 
quence were  a  healthy,  hardy  people. 

The  climate  of  the  Nile  valley  is  warm  and  dry.  In  Southern  Egypt  Climate, 
the  heat  is  excessive.  In  Northern  Egypt  several  causes  combine  to 
give  a  lower  summer  temperature.  In  the  desert  tracts  the  air  is  much 
drier  than  in  the  Nile  valley  itself,  with  greater  alternations  of  heat 
and  cold.  In  summer  the  air  is  suffocating,  while  in  winter  the 
days  are  cool  and  the  nights  actually  cold.  Heavy  rains  and  violent 
thunder-storms  are  frequent  at  this  season.  At  certain  seasons  green 
herbage  and  flowers  cover  the  torrent-beds  after  the  water  has  flowed 
into  the  Nile ;  but  the  solar  heat  and  the  Khamseen,  or  hot  desert  wind, 
wither  the  herbage  and  flowers  at  other  seasons. 

The  vegetable  productions  of  Egypt  are  trees,  shrubs,  esculent  Vegetable 
plants,  grain,  artificial  grasses  and  medicinal  plants.  The  trees  are  ( 
the  date-palm,  the  sycamore,  the  tamarisk,  the  myxa,  the  acanthus  and 
several  kinds  of  acacias.  Among  shrubs  and  fruit-trees  are  the  fig,  the 
pomegranate,  the  mulberry,  the  vine,  the  olive,  the  apricot,  the  peach, 
the  pear,  the  plum,  the  apple,  the  orange,  the  lemon,  the  banana,  the 
locust-tree,  the  persea,  the  castor-oil  plant  and  the  prickly  pear. 
These,  excepting  the  orange,  lemon,  apricot  and  banana,  are  believed 
to  have  all  been  productions  of  ancient,  as  well  as  of  modern,  Egypt. 
The  esculent  plants  which  grew  wild  were  the  byblus,  or  papyrus,  the 
Nymphcea  lotus  and  the  Lotus  ccerulea.  The  papyrus  plant,  which 
was  used  for  writing,  is  not  now  found  in  Egypt.  The  cultivated 
vegetables  are  mainly  the  same  as  those  of  other  countries.  Artificial 
grasses  of  ancient  Egypt  were  clover,  vetches,  lupins  and  the  gilbdn 
of  the  Arabs,  or  the  Lathyrus  sat'mus  of  Pliny. 

The  wild  animals  indigenous  in  Egypt  were  the  hippopotamus,  the  Animals, 
crocodile,  the  lion,  the  hyena,  the  wolf,  the  jackal,  the  fox,  the  ich- 
neumon, the  hare,  the  jerboa,  the  rat,  the  mouse,  the  shrew-mouse,  the 
porcupine,  the  hedgehog,  and  perhaps  the  bear,  the  wild  boar,  the  ibex, 
the  gazelle,  three  kinds  of  antelopes,  the  stag,  the  wild  sheep,  the 
Monitor  Niloticus,  and  the  wild  cat.  The  domestic  animals  were  the 
horse,  the  ass,  the  camel,  the  Indian  or  humped  ox,  the  cow,  the  sheep, 
the  goat,  the  pig,  the  cat  and  the  dog. 

The  birds  of  Egypt  are  the  eagle,  the  falcon,  the  JEtolian  kite,  the      Birds. 
black  vulture,  the  bearded  vulture,  the  Vultur  percnopterus,  the  osprey, 


40 


Fish. 


Minerals. 


ANCIENT   EGYPT   AND    ETHIOPIA. 

the  horned  owl,  the  screech-owl,  the  raven,  the  ostrich,  the  ibis,  the 
pelican,  the  vulpanser  or  fox-goose,  the  Nile  duck,  the  hoopoe,  the  sea- 
swallow,  the  Eg}rptian  kingfisher,  the  quail,  the  oriental  dotterell,  the 
benno,  the  sicsac,  the  swallow,  the  sparrow,  the  wagtail,  the  crested 
plover,  the  heron  and  other  wading  birds,  the  common  kite,  the  hawk, 
the  common  vulture,  the  common  owl,  the  white  owl,  the  turtle-dove, 
the  missel  thrush,  the  common  kingfisher,  the  lark,  and  the  finch. 

There  were  different  kinds  of  fish  in  the  Nile;  and  various  reptiles 
were  found  in  the  country,  such  as  turtles,  iguanas,  geckos  or  small 
lizards,  the  horned  snake,  the  asp,  the  chameleon,  and  others.  The 
most  remarkable  insects  are  the  scorpion,  the  locust  and  the  solpuga 
spider. 

Among  minerals  in  Egypt  are  many  excellent  kinds  of  stone,  such 
as  magnesian  limestone,  sandstone,  porphyry,  alabaster,  granite  and 
syenite.  The  inexhaustible  supply  of  stone  made  that  gift  of  nature 
the  great  building  material  of  Egypt.  The  different  kinds  of  stone 
were  conveyed  from  one  end  of  Egypt  to  the  other  by  being  floated 
on  rafts  along  the  Nile.  It  was  easy  to  float  down  the  river  the  gran- 
ite and  syenite  of  the  far  South  of  Egypt  to  Thebes,  Memphis,  and 
the  cities  of  the  Delta.  There  were  few  metals  in  Egypt.  Among 
these  were  gold,  silver,  copper,  iron  and  lead.  Other  mineral  produc- 
tions were  natron,  salt,  sulphur,  petroleum,  chalcedonies,  carnelians, 
jaspers,  green  breccia,  emeralds,  agate,  rock-crystal,  serpentine,  com- 
pact feldspar,  steatite,  hornblende,  basanite,  actinolite  and  the  sul- 
phate of  barytes. 


Native 
Myths. 

Manetho. 


SECTION  II.— SOURCES  OF  EGYPTIAN  HISTORY. 

THE  history  of  Egypt  dates  back  to  the  most  remote  antiquity. 
The  early  Egyptians  believed  that  there  had  been  a  time  when  their 
ancestors  were  savages  and  cannibals,  dwelling  in  caves  in  those  ridges 
of  sandstone  which  border  the  valley  of  the  Nile  on  the  east ;  and  that 
their  greatest  benefactors  were  Osiris  and  Isis,  who  raised  them  into 
a  devout  and  civilized  people,  eating  bread,  drinking  wine  and  beer, 
and  planting  the  olive.  For  this  reason  the  worship  of  Osiris  and 
Isis  became  general  throughout  Egypt,  while  the  different  cities  and 
nomes  had  their  own  respective  local  deities.  According  to  Manetho, 
a  native  Egyptian  historian  of  the  later  days  of  antiquity,  the  first 
rulers  of  Egypt  were  gods,  spirits,  demigods,  and  manes,  or  human 
souls ;  which  amounts  to  saying  that  the  earliest  history  of  Egypt,  like 
that  of  most  other  countries,  is  unknown  or  involved  in  the  obscurity 
and  uncertainty  of  legend  and  fable. 


SOURCES    OF    EGYPTIAN    HISTORY. 


41 


The  history  of  this  great  ancient  people  has  been  derived  from  sev- 
eral sources — the  historical  writings  of  the  ancient  Greek  historians, 
Herodotus  and  Diodorus,  and  the  native  Egyptian  priest  Manetho,  and 
in  modern  times  from  the  deciphering  of  the  inscriptions  on  the  Egyp- 
tian monuments  and  from  the  discovery  of  the  records  on  rolls  of 
papyrus  found  in  the  tombs. 

The  ancient  sources  of  Egyptian  chronology  are  obscure  and  con- 
flicting. The  Greek  historians  represented  the  Egyptians  as  the  first 
race  of  men.  When  Herodotus  visited  Egypt,  about  the  middle  of  the 
fifth  century  before  Christ,  the  native  priests  read  to  him,  from  rolls 
of  papyrus,  the  names  of  three  hundred  and  forty-one  kings,  from 
Menes,  the  founder  of  the  monarchy,  to  Seti.  In  the  great  temple  of 
Thebes  the  priests  showed  Herodotus  the  wooden  images  of  three  hun- 
dred and  forty-five  priests,  who,  from  father  to  son,  had  held  the  sacer- 
dotal office  during  the  reigns  of  these  kings.  From  these  data  Herod- 
otus estimated  the  antiquity  of  Egypt  to  have  been  nearly  twelve 
thousand  years,  counting  three  hundred  and  forty  generations  from 
Menes  to  Seti,  with  three  generations  to  each  century,  and  reckoning 
a  century  and  a  half  from  the  beginning  of  Seti's  reign  to  the  Per- 
sian conquest  of  Egypt,  B.  C.  525,  which  latter  event  had  occurred 
about  seventy-five  years  before  the  visit  of  the  "Father  of  History" 
to  this  celebrated  land.  According  to  this  computation,  based  upon 
the  recorded  traditions  of  the  Egyptian  priests,  the  founding  of  the 
Egyptian  monarchy  by  Menes  occurred  more  than  twelve  thousand 
five  hundred  years  before  Christ. 

In  the  first  century  before  Christ,  Diodorus  Siculus,  another  Greek 
historian,  also  visited  this  renowned  land,  and  to  him  the  priests  read 
from  their  sacred  books  the  names  of  four  hundred  and  seventy  kings, 
beginning  with  Menes,  with  accounts  of  their  appearance,  stature  and 
actions.  From  the  information  he  thus  received,  giving  three  genera- 
tions to  a  century,  Diodorus  computed  the  founding  of  the  kingdom 
by  Menes  at  nearly  seventeen  thousand  years  before  his  time.  But 
careful  research  revealed  to  him  many  errors  in  the  traditionary  rec- 
ords, and  his  corrected  accounts  assign  the  founding  of  the  Old  Empire 
by  Menes  at  4800  B.  C. 

About  three  centuries  before  Christ,  the  learned  Greek  antiquarian, 
Eratosthenes,  librarian  of  Alexandria,  copied  the  names  of  thirty-eight 
Theban  kings  from  the  holy  books  of  Thebes,  which  list  was  finished 
by  Apollodorus  by  adding  the  names  of  fifty-three  more,  thus  giving 
a  full  list  of  ninety-one  kings. 

In  the  third  century  before  Christ,  an  Egyptian  priest,  named 
Manetho,  compiled  a  history  of  his  country  in  three  volumes,  giving 
the  reigns  of  all  the  kings  from  the  founding  of  the  monarchy  by 


Greek 
Sources. 


Herod- 
otus. 


Diodorus 
Siculus. 


Eratos- 
thenes 

and 

Apolio- 
dorus. 


Manetho's 
Thirty 
Dynas- 
ties. 


ANCIENT   EGYPT   AND   ETHIOPIA. 


Turin 
Papyrus. 


Hiero- 
glyphics 


Rosetta 
Stone. 


Menes  to  the  first  Persian  conquest  of  Egypt,  525  B.  C.,  through 
twenty-six  dynasties,  and  through  four  more  dynasties  until  the  final 
Persian  conquest  in  346  B.  C.,  making  thirty  dynasties  in  all.  This 
work  was  afterward  lost,  but  fragments  of  it  were  transcribed  by 
Josephus,  Julius  Africanus,  Eusebius,  Syncellus,  and  other  historians, 
and  thus  handed  down  to  future  generations.  According  to  Mane- 
tho's  calculation,  the  founding  of  the  kingdom  by  Menes  occurred  in 
the  year  5706  B.  C.  in  the  Egyptian  reckoning,  and  in  the  year  5702 
B.  C.  of  the  Julian  calendar.  Manetho's  record  of  the  first  seventeen 
dynasties,  embracing  the  periods  of  the  Old  Empire  and  the  Middle 
Empire,  is  very  obscure,  on  account  of  facts  and  dates  found  recorded 
in  the  monumental  inscriptions  of  that  long  period  of  over  twelve 
centuries  ;  and  it  is  hard  to  decide  whether  the  thirty  dynasties  were 
consecutive,  or  whether  several  of  them  were  contemporaneous.  This 
fact  has  made  it  difficult  to  fix  the  exact  or  approximate  date  of  the 
establishment  of  the  Old  Empire  by  Menes. 

A  list  of  the  names  of  kings  was  also  preserved  in  the  Turin  Papy- 
rus, recorded  more  than  a  thousand  years  before  the  Christian  era. 
Other  sources  of  ancient  Egyptian  history  are  the  allusions  made  to 
that  country  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures. 

In  the  past  century  our  knowledge  of  this  famous  land  has  been 
immensely  extended  by  the  discovery  of  the  art  of  deciphering  the 
inscriptions  which  this  ancient  people  lavishly  carved  on  their  build- 
ings and  monuments,  particularly  their  obelisks,  painted  on  the  fres- 
coed insides  of  their  tombs,  and  actually  cut  on  nearly  all  objects  of 
art  or  use.  These  writings  and  carvings  were  in  the  character  of  what 
are  known  as  hieroglyphics,  a  Greek  word  signifying  sacred  carvings 
or  priestly  writing.  The  knowledge  of  the  reading  of  these  inscrip- 
tions perished  with  the  decay  of  ancient  Egypt,  and  for  many  centuries 
the  term  "hieroglyphics"  was  synonymous  with  everything  mysterious. 

The  unraveling  of  this  mystery  was  brought  about  by  an  interest- 
ing incident.  During  Bonaparte's  invasion  of  Egypt  in  1798,  a 
French  engineer,  while  engaged  in  digging  the  foundation  of  a  fort 
near  the  Rosetta  mouth  of  the  Nile,  discovered  a  stone  tablet  about 
three  feet  long,  on  which  was  carved  an  inscription  in  three  different 
characters.  This  tablet  has  become  celebrated  as  the  Rosetta  Stone. 
The  lower  of  the  three  texts  was  Greek,  and  easily  translated;  the 
upper  text  was  in  the  hieroglyphic  style,  while  the  middle  text  was 
in  a  character  since  styled  demotic,  meaning  the  writing  of  the  com- 
mon people  (from  demos,  the  people).  Copies  of  this  inscription  were 
circulated  among  the  learned  men  of  Europe,  and  after  long  and  pa- 
tient efforts  the  alphabet  of  the  hieroglyphics  was  discovered;  so  that 
these  carved  inscriptions  on  old  Egyptian  works  of  art  and  archi- 


OLD   AND   MIDDLE   EMPIRES   IN   EGYPT. 


4,3 


tecture  can  now  be  easily  and  correctly  read,  thus  giving  an  abundance 
of  new  light  on  the  history  of  this  wonderful  land  of  antiquity.  The 
Rosetta  Stone  was  carved  about  196  B.  C.,  and  was  an  ordinance  of 
the  Egyptian  priests  decreeing  honors  to  Ptolemy  Epiphanes,  one  of 
the  famous  Greek  dynasty  who  governed  Egypt  during  the  first  three 
centuries  before  Christ,  and  that  accounts  for  the  existence  of  the 
three  texts  on  the  tablet.  The  great  task  of  deciphering  these  inscrip- 
tions was  chiefly  the  work  of  the  noted  French  savant,  Champollion. 

On  account  of  the  obscurity  and  uncertainty  of  early  Egyptian  Modern 
chronology,  modern  historians  and  Egyptologists  have  differed  widely  E<5ists1~ 
as  to  the  antiquity  of  this  most  ancient  monarchy.  The  French  Egyp- 
tologists, headed  by  M.  Mariette,  place  the  founding  of  the  First 
Dynasty  by  Menes  at  5004  B.  C.  The  German  Orientalists  and  Egyp- 
tologists differ,  Bockh  fixing  the  date  at  5702  B.  C.,  Dr.  Brugsch  at 
4455  B.  C.,  Lauth  at  4157  B.  C.,  Professor  Lepsius  at  3892  B.  C., 
Baron  Bunsen  at  3059  B.  C.,  and  Dr.  Duncker  at  3233  B.  C.  The 
English  Egyptologists,  at  the  head  of  whom  stands  Sir  Gardner  Wil- 
kinson, regard  the  year  2700  B.  C.  as  about  the  approximate  date; 
and,  as  it  is  necessary  to  have  some  fixed  chronological  basis,  we  will 
follow  the  English  view  in  the  present  work.  In  the  last  few  years 
William  Flinders  Petrie,  an  eminent  English  Egyptologist,  has  made 
a  number  of  new  and  very  wonderful  discoveries  in  Egypt,  thus  bring- 
ing to  light  many  new  facts  regarding  the  antiquity  of  that  renowned 
land  and  the  founding  of  the  Old  Empire  by  Menes.  By  deciphering 
many  inscriptions  among  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  city  of  Abydos, 
Petrie  established  the  fact  that  the  civilization  of  Egypt  existed  many 
centuries  before  Menes,  who  only  established  a  powerful  monarchy  by 
uniting  several  hitherto  separate  and  highly  civilized  kingdoms. 


SECTION  III.—  OLD  AND  MIDDLE  EMPIRES  IN  EGYPT. 

THE  history  of  ancient  Egypt  has  been  divided  into  three  distinctive 
periods.  The  Old  Empire  extended  from  the  establishment  of  the 
First  Dynasty  at  Memphis  by  Menes,  in  the  very  earliest  times,  to  the 
conquest  of  all  Egypt  by  the  Hyksos,  or  Shepherd  Kings,  about  1900 
B.  C.  The  Middle  Empire  —  the  epoch  of  the  rule  of  the  Hyksos  over 
the  whole  country  —  embraced  the  period  from  1900  B.  C.,  to  the  expul- 
sion of  the  Shepherd  Kings  in  1600  B.  C.  The  New  Empire  lasted 
over  a  thousand  years,  from  1600  B.  C.  to  the  Persian  conquest  of 
Egypt  in  525  B.  C.  ;  since  which  time  this  famous  land  has  not  been 
governed  by  a  native  prince.  The  New  Empire  was  the  most  brilliant 
period  of  Egyptian  history,  and  may  be  subdivided  into  two  sharply- 


Three 


Egypt. 


44  ANCIENT   EGYPT   AND   ETHIOPIA. 

distinguished  epochs — the  grand  age,  from  1600  B.  C.  to  1200  B.  C. ; 
and  the  age  of  decay,  from  1200  B.  C.  to  525  B.  C. 

Nomes.  Egypt  was  originally  divided  into  a  number  of  nomes  or  petty  states, 
independent  of  each  other,  and  each  having  for  its  nucleus  a  temple 
and  an  established  priesthood.  One  historian  mentions  fifty-three 
nomes,  another  thirty-six.  The  gradual  absorption  of  the  weaker 
nomes  by  the  more  powerful  finally  resulted  in  the  establishment  of 
this  first  consolidated  monarchy  of  Africa. 

Mene.  The  first  mortal  king  of  Misraim,  the  "double  land,"  was  MENES, 

who,  according  to  Manetho,  founded  the  First  Egyptian  Dynasty  at 
This  (afterwards  Abydos),  in  Upper  Egypt.  This  was  the  begin- 
ning of  the  OL.D  EMPIRE,  which  lasted  from  the  earliest  times  to  the 
conquest  of  all  Egypt  by  the  Hyksos,  about  1900  B.  C.  Menes,  the 
first  Egyptian  king,  conquered  and  improved  Lower  Egypt,  and  on  a 
marshy  tract  which  he  had  drained  and  protected  by  dykes  against  the 
annual  overflow  of  the  Nile,  he  founded  the  great  city  of  Memphis, 
which,  for  many  centuries,  remained  the  capital  of  the  flourishing  king- 
dom which  he  had  established.  At  Memphis  Menes  built  the  temple 
of  Phthah,  and  there  were  won  the  first  recorded  triumphs  of  this  very 
oldest  of  ancient  civilized  nations.  On  the  north  and  west  sides  of  his 
capital,  Menes  caused  artificial  lakes  to  be  constructed  for  the  defense 
of  the  city,  and  on  the  south  side  a  large  dyke  protected  it  against  the 
annual  overflow  of  the  Nile.  The  public  treasures  were  established 
in  the  city,  the  laws  were  revised  and  the  civil  administration  improved. 
After  a  reign  of  sixty-two  years,  Menes  is  said  to  have  perished  in  a 
struggle  with  a  hippopotamus,  and  was  deified  by  his  admiring  coun- 
trymen. 

Ateta.  Menes  was  succeeded  by  his  son  ATETA — called  Athothis,  or  Thoth, 
by  the  Greeks — who  was  skilled  in  medicine  and  wrote  works  on  anat- 
omy, of  which  portions  still  exist,  and  who  built  the  citadel  and 
Kenkenes.  palace  of  Memphis.  KENKENES,  the  third  king,  was  succeeded  by 
Uenephes.  UENEPHES,  who  built  the  Pyramid  of  Kokome,  believed  to  be  the  oldest 
of  all  those  wonderful  structures,  and  who  bore  the  name  of  the  Sacred 
Calf  of  Heliopolis.  Altogether  the  First  Dynasty  comprised  eight 
kings. 

Third  The  Third  Dynasty  reigned  at  Memphis  and  embraced  nine  kings. 
Dynasty,  rjv^  £rgj.  Q£  ^hese  was  NECHEROPHES,  who  is  said  to  have  conquered 

Necher-     Libya,  the  superstitious  Libyans  having  been  frightened  into  submis- 

op  M'      sion  by  an  eclipse  of  the  moon  as  they  were  preparing  for  battle. 

Tosor-  TOSORTHRUS,  the  second  king  of  this  dynasty,  encouraged  writing, 
^8'  medicine  and  architecture,  and  introduced  or  improved  the  art  of  build- 
ing with  hewn  stone,  previous  structures  having  been  made  of  rough 
stone  or  brick.  He  was  known  to  the  Greeks  as  the  " Peaceful  Sesos- 


BUILDING  THE  PYRAMIDS 

From  the  Painting  by  G.  Richter 


OLD    AND   MIDDLE    EMPIRES    IN    EGYPT.  4,5 

tris,"  the  later  two  monarchs  bearing  that  name  being  great  warriors 
and  conquerors. 

His  son  and  successor,  SASYCHIS,  or  Mares-sesorcheres,  was  a  re-  Sasychis. 
nowned  lawgiver,  who  is  said  to  have  organized  the  worship  of  the 
gods,  and  to  have  invented  the  sciences  of  geometry  and  astronomy. 
He  is  likewise  said  to  have  made  the  remarkable  law  that  a  debtor 
might  give  his  father's  mummy  as  security  for  a  debt.  If  the  debt 
was  not  discharged,  neither  the  debtor  nor  his  father  could  ever  rest 
in  the  family  sepulcher,  and  this  was  regarded  as  the  most  disgrace- 
ful fate  that  could  befall  a  mortal. 

The  monumental  and  more  certain  history  of  Egypt  commences  with     Second, 
the  Second,  Fourth  and  Fifth  Dynasties,  which  reigned  contemporane-  and° 


ously  ;  the  Second  at  This,  in  Upper  Egypt  ;  the  Fourth  at  Memphis,  Dynas- 
in  Middle  Egypt  ;  and  the  Fifth  in  the  Isle  of  Elephantine,  in  Upper 
Egypt.  Of  these  the  Fourth  Dynasty,  established  at  Memphis  about 
2450  B.  C.,  was  the  most  powerful  and  exercised  a  certain  degree  of 
supremacy  over  the  other  two.  This  Memphite  dynasty  consisted  of 
eight  kings,  and  its  greatness  is  fully  attested  by  the  gigantic  struc- 
tures of  stone  which  it  left  in  Middle  Egypt  between  the  Libyan 
Mountains  and  the  Nile  ;  so  that  it  was  the  Fourth  Dynasty  that  im- 
mortalized itself  as  that  of  the  Pyramid-builders,  and  this  period  is 
one  of  the  most  brilliant  in  the  history  of  ancient  Egypt. 

The  great  increase  in  the  population  had  placed  at  the  king's  dis-  Building 
posal  a  large  amount  of  unemployed  labor,  and  the  natural  productive- 
ness  of  the  soil  had  given  all  ranks  far  more  leisure  than  was  enjoyed 
by  any  other  people  of  antiquity.  The  long  duration  of  the  yearly 
overflow  of  the  Nile  caused  a  perceptible  suspension  in  the  various 
industrial  channels,  and  allowed  the  sovereigns  larger  opportunities  to 
employ  the  labor  of  the  people  in  works  which  might  carry  their  fame 
to  countless  future  ages.  Such  were  the  circumstances  that  led  to  the 
building  of  the  great  Pyramids  —  the  most  gigantic  structures  ever 
erected  by  human  hands,  and  which  the  kings  designed  for  their  tombs. 

These  Pyramids  are  in  the  vicinity  of  the  site  of  the  ancient  Mem-  Pyramids 
phis,  about  ten  miles  west  of  the  Nile,  on  a  barren  elevation,  in  the 
sides  of  which  were  chambers  hewn  out  of  the  solid  rock,  in  which  the 
bodies  of  the  ordinary  dead  were  interred.  The  kingly  sarcophagus 
was  assigned  a  more  pretentious  sepulcher  under  more  imposing  monu- 
ments of  stone.  Gradually  the  heap  of  royal  tombs  assumed  the  form 
of  the  Pyramids,  the  structure  becoming,  by  degrees,  more  regular 
internally  and  externally,  so  that  the  finished  pile  has  been  the  wonder 
of  succeeding  ages.  Along  the  elevation  west  of  Memphis  about  sev- 
enty of  these  stupendous  structures  were  erected.  Of  these,  three  were 
specially  celebrated  because  of  their  size  and  grandeur.  These  are 


4fl  ANCIENT   EGYPT   AND    ETHIOPIA. 

the  Pyramids  of  Ghizeh,  near  which  city  they  are  located.  They  were 
built  in  the  twenty-fifth  century  before  Christ.  These  three  are  more 
conspicuous  than  the  remaining  seven  of  the  same  group  in  that  vicin- 
ity. The  oldest  and  largest  of  the  three  great  Pyramids  of  Ghizeh 
is  that  of  KHUFTT — the  Cheops  of  Herodotus — who  was  the  successor 
of  SENEFERU  or  Soris,  the  first  king  of  the  Fourth  Dynasty,  and  the 
builder  of  the  northern  Pyramid  of  Abousir. 

Pyramid  The  Pyramid  of  Cheops  was  originally  four  hundred  and  eighty 
feet  high,  but  as  the  apex  has  been  broken  off  it  is  now  but  four  hun- 
dred and  fifty  feet  high.  The  base  covers  about  thirteen  acres,  and 
each  side  of  the  base  is  seven  hundred  and  sixteen  feet  long,  and  the 
inclination  is  five  hundred  and  seventy-four  feet.  The  vast  structure 
is  located  exactly  on  the  thirtieth  parallel  of  north  latitude,  and  its 
four  sides  face  the  cardinal  points  of  the  compass.  On  the  north  side, 
exactly  in  the  middle,  a  rectangular  opening  is  cut,  being  the  entrance 
of  a  descending  passage  three  feet  wide  and  four  feet  high.  The 
passage  leads  downward  to  a  chamber  cut  in  the  solid  rock  of  the 
foundation,  over  a  hundred  feet  under  the  ground-level  of  the  base. 
The  chamber  is  precisely  under  the  apex  of  the  pyramid,  at  a  distance 
of  six  hundred  feet.  At  points  in  the  main  passage  to  this  chamber 
diverging  passages  lead  to  two  other  chambers,  which  also  lie  directly 
under  the  apex  of  the  Pyramid  and  above  the  first  chamber.  In  these 
chambers  were  placed  the  stone  coffins  containing  the  mummies  of  these 
ancient  monarchs.  Upon  the  walls  were  sculptures  recounting  the 
departed  king's  deeds.  The  door  of  the  passage  was  sealed  with  a 
stone,  and  the  name  of  the  dead  sovereign  was  added  to  the  list  of 
deities  in  the  temple.  Herodotus  says  that  the  building  of  the  "  Great 
Pyramid"  occupied  thirty  years,  that  one  hundred  thousand  men  were 
forced  to  work  upon  it  at  a  time,  and  that  a  new  army  of  laborers  was 
employed  every  three  months. 

Pyramids  rp^  secon(j  of  ^e  three  great  Pyramids  was  built  by  Khufu's  cele- 
and  Men-  brated  successor,  SHAFRA,  and  was  originally  four  hundred  and  fif ty- 
*'  seven  feet  high,  and  resembles  the  Pyramid  of  Cheops  in  general  pro- 
portion and  internal  structure.  The  third  Pyramid  of  Ghizeh  was 
erected  by  MENKAURA,  the  successor  of  Shafra,  and  is  only  two  hun- 
dred feet  high  and  thirty-three  feet  at  the  base,  and  the  inclination  is 
two  hundred  and  sixty-two  feet.  Some  of  the  outside  portions  of  this 
Pyramid  consist  of  polished  slabs  of  granite.  It  has  a  double  chamber 
within,  one  behind  the  other.  In  the  farther  chamber  was  recently 
found  the  sarcophagus  containing  the  mummy  of  Menkaura  himself, 
by  General  Howard  Vyse ;  and  the  hieroglyphic  inscription  on  the  case 
containing,  with  the  monarch's  name,  the  myth  of  the  god  Osiris,  has 


OLD    AND   MIDDLE    EMPIRES    IN    EGYPT. 


4,7 


been  deciphered  and  translated  into  English.  It  is  only  in  recent  times 
that  other  royal  mummies  have  been  found. 

The  Pyramids  are  built  of  successive  layers  of  stone  from  two  to  six 
feet  thick,  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  structure.  The  layers 
decrease  in  size  from  the  ground  upwards,  so  that  the  monument  ap- 
pears on  each  side  in  the  form  of  a  series  of  stone  steps  receding  to 
the  top.  Diodorus  says  he  was  informed  by  the  Egyptian  priests  that 
the  gigantic  masses  of  stone  which  were  used  in  building  the  Pyramids 
were  brought  from  Arabia,  and  were  put  into  place  by  building  under 
them  vast  mounds  of  earth,  from  which  the  blocks  of  stone  could  be 
moved  into  their  respective  places.  This  statement  seems  to  be  sub- 
stantiated by  the  fact  that  no  stone  of  the  kind  used  in  the  construc- 
tion of  these  vast  monuments  can  be  found  within  many  miles  from 
the  place  where  the  Pyramids  were  erected. 

Khufu  and  his  successor,  Shafra,  oppressed  the  people  and  despised 
the  gods,  crushing  the  former  by  the  severe  toils  required  by  these 
great  works,  and  closing  the  temples  of  the  latter  and  putting  an  end 
to  their  worship  ;  but  Menkaura,  who  was  the  son  of  Khufu,  and  who, 
as  well  as  his  father,  reigned  sixty  -three  years,  differed  from  him  in 
being  a  good  and  humane  sovereign.  Menkaura  reopened  the  temples 
which  his  father  had  closed,  restored  the  religious  rites  of  sacrifice  and 
praise,  and  put  an  end  to  oppressive  labors.  He  was,  in  consequence, 
highly  reverenced  by  the  people,  and  his  name  was  celebrated  in  many 
hymns  and  ballads.  After  the  reigns  of  four  more  kings,  known  to  us 
only  by  names  and  dates,  the  Fourth  Dynasty,  whose  eight  reigns 
aggregated  about  two  hundred  and  twenty  years,  ended  about  2220 
B.  C. 

The  Second  Dynasty,  ruling  Middle  Egypt  from  This,  or  Abydos, 
and  the  Fifth,  ruling  Upper  Egypt  from  the  Isle  of  Elephantine,  were 
probably  related  by  blood  to  the  powerful  sovereigns  ruling  Lower 
Egypt  from  Memphis,  as  the  tombs  of  all  three  of  these  royal  races 
are  found  in  the  vicinity  of  Memphis.  The  Arabian  copper  mines 
of  the  Peninsula  of  Sinai  were  worked  by  Egyptian  colonies  established 
there  by  the  Pyramid-kings,  and  at  this  period  Egyptian  arts  and 

architecture  had  attained  their  highest  degree  of  perfection.     Paint- 

,    ,  ,        .,  .  *  j         f  r  •  i 

ing,  sculpture  and  writing,  as  well  as  modes  01   living  and  general 

civilization,  were  about  the  same  as  fifteen  centuries  later.  The  reed 
pen  and  the  inkstand  are  among  the  hieroglyphics  employed,  and  the 
scribe  appears,  pen  in  hand,  in  the  paintings  on  the  tombs,  making 
notes  on  linen  or  papyrus.  In  the  tombs  of  Beni-Hassan,  belonging 
to  this  period,  five  different  kinds  of  plows  are  shown,  and  agricultural 
life  is  fully  illustrated.  Thus  we  have  figures  of  sheep  and  goats 
treading  seed  into  the  ground;  of  wheat  bound  into  sheaves,  threshed, 


Structure 


TheKings 

Fourth 
Dynasty. 


Contem- 


ties 


Cir- 
ilization.  , 


4g  ANCIENT   EGYPT   AND   ETHIOPIA. 

measured,  and  carried  in  sacks  to  the  granary;  of  bundles  of  flax  on 
the  backs  of  asses ;  of  figs  gathered ;  of  grapes  thrown  into  the  press ; 
of  wine  carried  into  the  cellar;  of  the  overseer  and  laborers  in  field 
and  garden;  and  of  the  bastinado  applied  to  the  backs  of  laggards. 
We  also  have  scenes  of  flocks  and  herds,  of  bullocks,  calves,  asses, 
sheep,  goats;  and  also  domestic  fowl,  such  as  geese  and  ducks.  The 
making  of  butter  and  cheese  is  likewise  shown.  Other  works  of  sculp- 
ture show  us  the  spinners  and  weavers  at  their  looms,  the  potter  work- 
ing the  clay  or  burning  his  ware  in  the  furnace,  the  smith  making 
javelins  and  lances,  the  painter  at  work  with  his  colors,  the  mason  with 
his  trowel,  the  shoemaker  at  his  bench,  the  glass-blower  plying  his  art. 
The  various  grades  of  domestic  life  are  illustrated,  and  we  see  ser- 
vants at  work,  the  kitchen  implements  used,  also  domestic  apes,  dogs, 
cats,  etc.  In  military  life  we  have  exhibited  soldiers  practicing  in 
arms,  fighting  battles,  battering  walls  and  storming  towns.  Various 
sports  and  amusements  are  likewise  depicted,  and  we  have  here  ex- 
hibited wrestlers,  jugglers,  musicians,  male  and  female  dancers,  fishing 
parties  with  hooks  and  spears  and  nets.  Dwarfs  and  deformities  can 
also  be  seen,  and  every  condition  of  human  life  is  found  represented 
upon  imperishable  tablets  of  stone. 

Sixth  and        The  Fourth  Dynasty  at  Memphis  was  succeeded  by  the  Sixth  Dy- 
Contem-    nasty  about  2220  B.  C.     The  Second  Dynasty  continued  to  reign  at 
Dynas-      This  or  Abydos,  and  the  Fifth  in  the  Isle  of  Elephantine,  while  the 
Ninth  arose  at  Heracleopolis  and  the  Eleventh  at  Thebes ;   so  that 
Egypt  was  now  divided  into  five  separate  kingdoms,  the  Theban  grad- 
ually becoming  the  most  powerful,  as  the  Memphite  was  losing  its 
preeminence.     Thus  weakened  by  division  and  exhausted  by  the  great 
architectural  works  which  had  withdrawn  the  people  from  the  practice 
of  arms,  the  country  easily  fell  a  prey  to  the  barbaroi  s  nomad  hordes 
from  the  neighboring  regions  of  Syria  and  Arabia.     These  entered 
Lower  Egypt  from  the  north-east  by  way  of  the  Isthmus  of  Suez  about 
2080  B.  C.,  and  soon  became  masters  of  the  country  from  Memphis 
Hyksos  or  t°  the  sea.     They  were  called  the  Hyksos,  or  Shepherd  Kings.      They 
'I  Shepherd    carried  on  their  conquests  in  the  most  cruel  manner,  burning  the  cities, 
razing  the  temples  to  the  ground,  slaying  the  inhabitants  and  reducing 
the  women  and  children  to  slavery. 

Contem-  The  Hyksos  founded  the  Fifteenth  Dynasty  at  Memphis  and  the 
Sixteenth  at  Avaris,  in  the  Delta,  near  the  site  of  the  later  city  of 
Pelusium.  Native  dynasties  continued  to  reign  in  Middle  and  Upper 
Egypt,  the  Ninth  at  Heracleopolis,  the  Fifth  in  the  Isle  of  Elephan- 
tine, while  the  Twelfth  had  succeeded  the  Eleventh  at  Thebes,  and  the 
Fourteenth  arose  at  Xois,  in  the  Delta,  in  the  very  heart  of  the  con- 


OLD    AND   MIDDLE    EMPIRES    IN    EGYPT. 


quests  of  the  Shepherd  Kings,  and  maintained  its  independence  during 
the  whole  period  of  the  dominion  of  the  Hyksos. 

Under  the  vigorous  rule  of  the  Twelfth  Dynasty,  Thebes  rapidly 
grew  into  a  powerful  and  prosperous  kingdom  and  extended  its  su- 
premacy over  the  kingdoms  of  Elephantine  and  Heracleopolis,  con- 
quered the  peninsula  of  Sinai  and  carried  its  arms  triumphantly  into 
Arabia  and  Ethiopia.  USURTASEN  I.  reigned  over  all  Upper  Egypt, 
and  under  USURTASEN  II.  and  USURTASEN  III.  Thebes  attained  its 
highest  prosperity.  Usurtasen  III.  enriched  the  country  by  numerous 
canals ;  and  monuments  of  his  power  at  Senneh,  near  the  southern  bor- 
der of  the  kingdom,  still  excite  the  wonder  of  the  traveler.  His  suc- 
cessor, AMMENEMES  III. — the  Marls  or  Loamaris  of  Manetho,  and  the 
Moeris  of  Herodotus — built  the  Labyrinth  in  the  Faioom,  the  most 
superb  and  gigantic  edifice  in  Egypt,  which  contained  three  thousand 
rooms,  one  half  of  which  number  were  underground,  and  were  the  re- 
ceptacle of  the  mummies  of  kings  and  of  the  sacred  crocodiles,  and  are 
known  as  the  Catacombs.  The  walls  of  the  fifteen  hundred  apart- 
ments above  ground  were  of  solid  stone  and  entirely  covered  with  sculp- 
ture. Herodotus,  who  visited  this  magnificent  structure,  declared  that 
it  surpassed  all  other  human  works.  He  says:  "The  roof  through- 
out was  of  stone  like  the  wall,  and  the  walls  were  carved  all  over  with 
figures.  Every  court  was  surrounded  with  a  colonnade,  which  was 
built  of  white  stones  exquisitely  fitted  together." 

The  same  king  constructed  the  Lake  Moeris,  a  natural  reservoir  near 
a  bend  of  the  Nile,  which  he  so  improved  by  means  of  a  canal  and 
dykes  as  to  retain,  for  purposes  of  irrigation,  a  large  part  of  the 
waters  from  the  annual  inundation,  and  thus  increased  the  fertility  of 
the  surrounding  country. 

Architecture  and  the  arts  flourished  in  Upper  Egypt,  and  numerous 
canals  were  constructed  to  increase  the  fruitfulness  of  the  soil  by  irri- 
gation, while  Lower  Egypt  continued  to  groan  under  the  oppressive 
rule  of  the  Hyksos,  or  Shepherd  Kings.  The  Thirteenth  Dynasty, 
which  succeeded  the  Twelfth  at  Thebes,  was  compelled  to  give  way 
before  the  Shepherd  Kings  and  to  seek  refuge  in  Ethiopia,  thus  leav- 
ing Upper  Egypt  also  to  the  mercy  of  the  barbarous  Hyksos,  who 
now  ruled  all  Egypt,  except  Xois,  in  the  Delta  (B.  C.  1900).  The 
barbarous  conquerors  burned  cities,  destroyed  temples,  and  massacred 
or  enslaved  the  inhabitants.  During  the  MIDDLE  EMPIRE — from  1900 
B.  C.  to  1600  B.  C. — this  barbarous  race  held  the  native  Egyptians 
in  subjection;  the  Thirteenth  Dynasty  at  Thebes,  the  Seventh  and 
Eighth  at  Memphis,  and  the  Tenth  at  Heracleopolis,  holding  their 
crowns  as  tributaries  of  the  Shepherd  Kings  of  the  Seventeenth 
Dynasty. 


Twelfth 
Dynasty. 


Usurta- 
sen I. ,11 
and  III. 


Ammen- 
emes  III. 

Laby- 
rinth. 


Lake 

Moeris. 


Rule 

of  the 

Hyksos, 

or  the 

Middle 

Empire. 


VOL.  1. — 4 


50 

Darkness 
of  this 
Period. 


ANCIENT  EGYPT   AND   ETHIOPIA. 

This  was  the  darkest  period  of  Egyptian  history.  The  Hyksos 
destroyed  the  monuments  of  their  predecessors  and  left  none  of  their 
own,  so  that  there  is  a  gap  of  three  centuries  between  the  Old  and  the 
New  Empire,  during  which  the  Holy  City  of  Thebes  was  in  the  hands 
of  the  barbarians;  the  annals  ceased,  and  the  names  of  kings,  either 
native  Egyptian  or  Hyksos,  are  for  the  most  part  unknown  to  us. 
Late  writers  suppose  the  Hyksos  to  have  been  the  same  as  the  Hittites 
of  Syria.  After  their  expulsion  from  Egypt  some  of  them  found  ref- 
uge in  Crete,  and  reappeared  in  Palestine  about  the  same  time  that  the 
Israelites  entered  that  country  from  the  west.  It  is  believed  by  some 
that  Joseph  and  the  family  of  Jacob  settled  in  Lower  Egypt  during 
the  reign  of  one  of  the  Shepherd  Kings;  others,  however,  place  that 
event  a  little  later. 


Expul- 
sion of  the 
Hyksos. 


Amosis. 


High  Civ- 
ilization. 


Amun- 
oph  I. 
Thoth- 
meg  I. 


SECTION  IV.— THE  NEW  EMPIRE  IN  EGYPT. 

AFTER  their  long  humiliation  under  the  oppressive  rule  of  the  Shep- 
herd Kings,  the  Egyptian  people  rallied  for  a  great  national  uprising 
under  the  Theban  king  AMOSIS,  Ames,  or  Aahmes ;  and  the  Hyksos 
were  driven  from  Egypt,  after  a  desperate  contest,  B.  C.  1600.  Then 
began  the  NEW  EMPIRE — the  most  brilliant  period  of  Egyptian  his- 
tory— which  lasted  a  little  more  than  a  thousand  years  (B.  C.  1600- 
525).  Amosis  united  all  Egypt  into  one  kingdom,  with  Thebes  for  its 
capital,  and  founded  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty.  He  married  Nefruari, 
the  daughter  of  the  King  of  Ethiopia — "the  good  and  glorious  wo- 
man"— who  held  the  highest  honor  ever  accorded  a  queen. 

For  the  next  eight  centuries  Egypt  remained  a  single  united  king- 
dom ;  and  during  the  Eighteenth,  Nineteenth  and  Twentieth  Dynasties 
Egyptian  sculpture  and  architecture  reached  their  highest  degree  of 
perfection.  During  this  period  the  hundred-gated  Thebes  attained 
the  height  of  its  splendor.  Its  great  temple-palaces  were  then  built; 
and  numerous  obelisks,  "fingers  of  the  sun,"  pointed  heavenward.  The 
horse  and  the  war-chariot  were  now  introduced  into  Egypt,  and  the 
military  caste  for  a  time  held  a  higher  rank  than  the  priestly.  The 
martial  spirit  wrought  up  by  the  struggle  against  the  Hyksos  dis- 
played itself  in  warlike  enterprises  against  neighboring  nations,  which 
were  again  obliged  to  acknowledge  the  supremacy  of  Egypt,  whose 
arms  were  carried  in  triumph  into  Ethiopia,  Arabia  and  Syria,  and 
even  beyond  the  Euphrates. 

Amosis,  the  first  king  of  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty,  reigned  twenty- 
six  years.  The  next  king,  AMUNOPH  I.,  married  the  widow  of  Amosis, 
and  reigned  twenty-one  years.  THOTHMES  I.,  the  third  king  of  the 


THE    NEW    EMPIRE    IN    EGYPT. 


51 


Eighteenth  Dynasty,  won  great  victories  over  the  Ethiopians  and  con- 
quered the  Canaanites  of  Palestine,  and  even  carried  his  arms  east- 
ward against  the  Assyrians  in  Mesopotamia.  He  reigned  twenty-one 
years. 

Royal  women  were  held  in  higher  esteem  in  Egypt  than  in  any  other 
ancient  monarchy.  Thothmes  I.  was  succeeded  by  his  daughter, 
AMENSET,  Mesphra,  or  Hatasu,  who  acted  as  regent  for  her  younger 
brother,  THOTHMES  II.,  who  died  a  minor.  Amenset  held  the  regency 
for  her  next  brother,  THOTHMES  III.  Her  reign  of  twenty-two  years 
was  brilliant  and  successful.  She  completed  the  temple  of  Amun,  and 
her  fame  is  commemorated  by  the  two  gigantic  obelisks  at  Karnak. 

After  the  death  of  Amenset,  her  brother,  THOTHMES  III.,  reigned 
alone.  Envious  of  his  sister's  fame,  he  caused  her  name  and  image  to 
be  effaced  from  all  the  sculptures  in  which  they  had  appeared  together. 
Thothmes  III.  reigned  alone  forty-seven  years  (B.  C.  1510—1463). 
He  carried  on  wars  in  Ethiopia,  Arabia,  Syria  and  Mesopotamia,  and 
defeated  the  Syrians  in  a  great  battle  at  Megiddo,  in  Canaan,  twice 
took  Kadish,  the  chief  city  of  the  Kheta  tribes,  and  led  his  armies  as 
far  as  Nineveh,  from  which  city,  according  to  inscriptions  on  his 
monuments,  he  took  tribute.  Thothmes  III.  is  no  more  distinguished 
for  his  military  exploits  than  for  the  magnificent  temples  and  palaces 
which  he  erected  at  Karnak,  Thebes,  Memphis,  Heliopolis,  Coptos,  and 
in  every  other  city  of  Egypt  and  Ethiopia.  The  records  of  his  twelve 
successive  campaigns  are  inscribed  in  sculpture  upon  the  walls  of  his 
palaces  at  Thebes.  The  two  obelisks  near  Alexandria,  which  some 
Roman  wit  called  Cleopatra's  Needles,  one  of  which  is  now  in  London 
and  the  other  in  New  York,  bear  the  name  of  this  king. 

Thothmes  III.  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  AMUNOPH  II.,  in  the  begin- 
ning of  whose  reign  the  Egyptians  took  Nineveh.  He  is  said  to  have 
brought  to  Egypt  the  bodies  of  seven  kings  whom  he  had  slain  in 
battle,  and  whose  heads  were  placed  as  trophies  upon  the  walls  of 
Thebes.  After  a  short  reign  he  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  THOTHMES 
IV.,  who  is  believed  by  some  writers  to  have  caused  the  carving  of  the 
great  Sphinx  near  the  Pyramids.  AMUNOPH  III.,  the  son  and  suc- 
cessor of  Thothmes  IV.,  who  ascended  the  Egyptian  throne  B.  C.  1448, 
reigned  thirty-six  years,  and  was  one  of  the  greatest  monarchs  of  the 
Eighteenth  Dynasty.  He  conducted  successful  wars  against  the  Lib- 
yans and  Ethiopians,  and  adorned  his  kingdom  with  many  magnificent 
architectural  works,  and  improved  its  agriculture  by  the  construction 
of  tanks  or  reservoirs  to  regulate  irrigation.  New  temples  were  built 
at  Thebes,  where  also  two  great  Colossi,  one  of  which  is  known  as  the 
Vocal  Memnon,  also  belong  to  this  reign;  but  the  Amenopheum,  of 
which  they  were  ornaments,  is  now  in  ruins.  The  two  Colossi  were 


Amenset. 

Thoth- 
mes II. 
and  III. 


Wars  and 
Works  of 
Thoth- 
mes III. 


Amun- 
oph  II. 


Thoth- 
mes IV. 

Amun- 
oph  III. 

His  Wars 

and 
Works. 


Vocal 
Memnon. 


52  ANCIENT   EGYPT   AND   ETHIOPIA. 

huge  granite  statues  of  Araunoph  III.,  with  his  mother  and  queen  in 
relief  on  the  die,  in  front  of  the  sanctuary  of  Osiris,  and  may  still 
be  seen  among  the  surrounding  ruins.  The  Vocal  Memnon,  according 
to  a  Greek  tradition  founded  on  the  story  of  travelers  who  visited  the 
spot,  was  said  to  utter  a  musical  sound  at  sunrise  like  the  twanging 
Palaces  of  harp-strings.  The  pedestal  is  fifty-nine  feet  high  from  base  to 

Sphinxes,  crown.  The  palaces  of  Luxor  and  Karnak,  now  among  the  most  con- 
spicuous of  the  ruins  of  those  famous  places,  were  connected  by  an 
avenue  of  a  thousand  sphinxes,  while  at  Thebes  a  colonnade  in  the  same 
style  was  lined  with  colossal  sitting  statues  of  the  cat-headed  goddess 
Pasht,  or  Bubastis.  In  the  monumental  inscriptions  of  his  times, 
Amunoph  III.  is  styled  "Pacificator  of  Egypt  and  Tanner  of  the  Lib- 
yan Shepherds." 

Poms.  The  reign  of  Amunoph  III.  was  marked  by  great  internal  troubles, 
in  consequence  of  his  unsuccessful  efforts  to  change  the  national  re- 
ligion. His  son,  HOEUS,  was  his  legitimate  successor,  but  his  claims 
were  disputed  by  many  pretenders,  most  of  whom  were  princes  or 
princesses  of  the  blood  royal,  and  for  thirty  years  the  kingdom  was 
in  an  unsettled  and  distracted  condition.  Horus  ultimately  triumphed 
over  and  outlived  all  his  rivals,  and  died  after  reigning  seven  years 
in  peace.  He  conducted  successful  wars  in  Africa  and  enlarged  the 
Resitot.  palaces  at  Karnak  and  Luxor.  With  the  next  king,  RESITOT,  or 

Rathotis,  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty  came  to  an  end,  B.  C.  1400. 
Ra-  The  Nineteenth  Dynasty  was  founded  B.  C.  1400  by  RAMESES  L, 

meses  I.     wno  wag  descended  from  the  first  two  kings  of  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty. 

Seti.        He  reigned  less  than  two  years,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  SETI, 

or  Sethos  I.,  who  inherited  all  the  national  hatred  toward  the  Syrian 

invaders  of  his  country,  reconquered  Syria,  which  had  revolted  forty 

years  before,  and  extended  his  conquests  as  far  as  the  borders  of  Cilicia 

and  the  Euphrates.     Seti  built  the  great  Hall  of  Columns  at  Karnak, 

in  which  the  whole  Cathedral  of  Notre  Dame,  in  Paris,  could  stand 

without  touching  walls  or  ceiling ;  and  his  tomb  is  the  most  magnificent 

of  all  the  royal  sepulchers  of  ancient  Egypt. 

Ra-  The  most  renowned  king  of  Egypt  was  RAMESES  II.   (1388-1322 

meses  II.,  g  C>.)9  surnamed  the  Great,  whom  the  Greek  writers  named  Sesostris, 
and  who,  during  his  father's  lifetime,  subdued  both  Libya  and  Arabia. 
Upon  ascending  the  throne  he  entered  upon  a  career  of  conquest  with 
the  ultimate  design  of  universal  dominion.  Herodotus,  Diodorus,  and 
Manetho  relate,  with  some  variation  in  their  narrative,  his  subjugation 
of  the  neighboring  nations.  After  dividing  his  kingdom  into  thirty- 
six  nomes  and  assigning  his  brother  Armais  to  the  regency  in  his 
absence,  Rameses  set  out  with  an  army  of  six  hundred  thousand  foot- 


THE    NEW    EMPIRE    IN    EGYPT. 


soldiers,  twenty-four  thousand  horse,  and  twenty-seven  thousand  war- 
chariots,  to  conquer  the  world. 

He  first  reduced  Ethiopia  under  subjection  and  imposed  upon  that 
country  a  heavy  tribute  of  ebony,  ivory  and  gold.  He  founded  the 
Egyptian  navy  by  building  a  fleet  of  four  hundred  war  vessels  on  the 
Red  Sea,  and  reduced  under  his  dominion  the  islands  and  shores  as  far 
as  India.  After  carrying  his  victorious  arms  eastward  beyond  the 
Ganges,  he  rapidly  subdued  Asiatic  and  European  Scythia,  and  was 
only  checked  in  his  conquering  career  in  Thrace  by  the  severity  of 
the  climate  and  the  scarcity  of  food.  Wherever  he  conquered  he 
erected  monuments  with  the  inscription:  "Sesostris,  king  of  kings 
and  lord  of  lords,  has  conquered  this  territory  by  the  power  of  his 
arms."  After  nine  years  of  conquest,  this  triumphant  warrior-king 
returned  to  his  kingdom  with  a  vast  booty  and  captives  from  the 
subjugated  nations. 

Modern  investigation  has  shown  the  military  exploits  of  Rameses 
the  Great,  as  narrated  by  Herodotus  and  Diodorus,  to  have  been  highly 
exaggerated.  By  deciphering  the  inscriptions  in  the  Rameseum  at 
Karnak,  in  the  temple  erected  by  Rameses  in  Ethiopia,  in  the  ruins 
of  Tanis,  and  on  the  Rocks  of  Beyreut,  it  has  been  shown  that  the 
principal  scenes  in  his  triumphant  career  were  enacted  in  the  neigh- 
boring countries  of  Ethiopia,  Arabia  and  Syria. 

The  noted  works  of  Rameses  the  Great  were  the  building  of  a  great 
wall  from  Pelusium  to  Heliopolis,  to  protect  Egypt  on  the  east  against 
the  inroads  of  the  Syrians  and  Arabs;  the  cutting  of  a  system  of 
canals  from  Memphis  to  the  sea;  the  completion  of  the  famous  Hall 
of  Columns  at  Karnak,  begun  by  his  father ;  and  the  magnificent 
temple  of  Amunoph  III.  at  Luxor.  Before  this  temple  were  placed 
two  sitting  colossi  of  Rameses  and  two  red  granite  obelisks,  both  of 
which  still  remain  with  their  hieroglyphic  inscriptions  as  perfect  as 
when  they  were  cut,  one  still  standing  on  the  original  spot,  and  the 
other  greeting  the  eye  of  the  beholder  in  the  Place  de  la  Concorde, 
in  Paris. 

In  every  part  of  Egypt  may  be  found  monuments  commemorating 
the  achievements  and  greatness  of  this  celebrated  monarch.  At  Ip- 
sambul,  in  Nubia,  in  a  valley  with  walls  of  yellow  sandstone,  two 
temples  are  cut  in  the  solid  rock,  one  dedicated  to  Ra  by  Rameses 
the  Great,  and  the  other  to  Hathor  by  his  queen.  Before  the  temple 
of  Rameses  are  four  stupendous  colossi  of  himself,  over  seventy  feet 
high,  and  seated  on  thrones.  The  shoulders  of  these  colossal  statues 
are  twenty-five  feet  wide,  and  they  measure  fifteen  feet  from  elbow  to 
finger-tip.  The  image  of  Rameses  stands  conspicuous  among  those 
of  the  long  line  of  deified  sovereigns  of  Ancient  Egypt,  on  the  walls 


His  Con- 
quests. 


Exag- 
geration. 


Works  of 
Rameses 
the  Great. 


Rock 
Temples 

of  Ip- 
sambul. 


ANCIENT   EGYPT   AND    ETHIOPIA. 


Greatness 

of  Thebes. 


Menepta. 


His  Op- 
pression 

of  the 
Hebrews. 


Exodus. 


Passage 

of  the 

Red  Sea 


of  the  great  temple  of  Abydos,  while  before  the  altar  another  image 
represents  Rameses  as  a  mortal  offering  sacrifice  to  himself  and  his 
ancestors. 

Under  the  Nineteenth  Dynasty,  the  magnificence  and  greatness  of 
Thebes,  then  the  capital,  surpassed  the  former  splendor  of  Memphis. 
In  Thebes  the  wonderful  works  of  Thothmes  IV.,  Amunoph  III.,  Seti, 
Rameses  II.,  and  Rameses  III.,  rose  in  majestic  grandeur,  on  both 
sides  of  the  Nile,  around  a  circle  of  fifteen  miles. 

MENEPTA,  who  succeeded  Rameses  the  Great  in  1322  B.  C.,  and 
reigned  twenty  years,  is  now  generally  regarded  as  -the  Pharaoh  of 
the  Exodus  of  the  Israelites.  In  1550  B.  C.,  the  family  of  Jacob, 
the  grandson  of  Abraham,  the  founder  of  the  Hebrew  race,  had  set- 
tled in  that  part  of  Lower  Egypt  on  the  east  side  of  the  Delta,  known 
as  the  Land  of  Goshen,  while  Jacob's  favorite  son,  Joseph,  was  prime 
minister  to  the  Egyptian  king,  a  post  to  which  he  is  said  to  have 
been  elevated  on  account  of  his  services  in  saving  the  land  from  fam- 
ine. Here  the  posterity  of  Jacob  or  Israel  multiplied  during  a  period 
of  two  and  a  half  centuries.  For  a  while  the  new  race  of  strangers 
were  highly  esteemed  by  the  Egyptian  kings  and  nation,  but  during 
the  reigns  of  Seti  I.  and  Rameses  the  Great,  the  Egyptian  authorities 
grew  jealous  of  the  rapidly  increasing  Hebrew  race  and  began  to 
exercise  a  systematic  oppression  toward  them.  The  strangers  were 
set  to  work  at  building  and  digging.  Their  labor  enlarged  the  treas- 
ure cities  of  Pithom  and  Rameses.  They  aided  in  the  construction 
of  the  great  canal  from  the  Nile,  at  Bubastis,  to  the  Red  Sea.  They 
toiled  in  the  brickyards  and  were  beaten  by  the  Egyptian  task-masters 
until  they  rose  in  open  rebellion.  The  revolt  was  heightened  by  the 
withdrawal  of  religious  privileges.  Their  great  leader,  Moses,  who 
had  been  compelled  to  save  his  life  by  flight  to  the  Land  of  Midian 
because  he  had  slain  an  Egyptian  whom  he  had  seen  ill-treating  a 
Hebrew,  had  now  returned  to  his  people  and  sought  to  obtain  King 
Menepta's  permission  to  lead  them  in  a  three  days'  march  into  the 
desert  to  sacrifice  to  Jehovah.  It  was  only  after  Moses  had  performed 
signs  and  wonders  in  the  king's  house  that  Menepta  allowed  the  Israel- 
ites to  depart. 

They  followed  the  bank  of  the  canal,  gathering  their  people  along 
the  route  of  the  Hebrew  towns,  but  upon  reaching  the  Gulf  of  Suez 
were  hemmed  in  by  the  hosts  of  the  Egyptian  king. 

By  the  receding  of  the  waters  at  that  shallow  point  of  the  sea,  by 
means  of  a  "strong  east  wind,"  as  told  in  Exodus,  the  fleeing  Israel- 
ites, numbering  two  millions,  were  enabled  to  cross  the  bare,  sandy 
bottom  and  reach  the  opposite  shore  in  safety.  But  the  hosts  of 


THE    NEW    EMPIRE    IN    EGYPT. 


55 


Menepta,  while  crossing  the  shallow  bottom  in  pursuit  of  the  fugi- 
tives, were  suddenly  drowned  by  the  returning  waters. 

The  account  of  the  Exodus  of  the  Israelites,  as  related  by  Manetho 
and  quoted  by  Josephus,  differs  from  the  Mosaic  account  in  detail. 
Manetho  states  that  Menepta  desired  to  see  the  gods,  and  was  in- 
formed by  a  priest  of  the  same  name  that  his  wish  could  only  be 
gratified  when  he  cleansed  the  land  of  lepers.  The  Pharaoh  Menepta, 
therefore,  cast  eighty  thousand  of  the  lepers  into  the  stone-quarries 
east  of  the  Nile.  When  the  son  of  Papius  heard  that  some  priests 
and  men  of  learning  had  thus  perished,  he  feared  the  displeasure  of 
the  gods  for  having  plotted  to  ruin  or  enslave  holy  men.  But  a 
vision  informed  him  that  others  would  come  to  aid  the  lepers  and 
govern  Egypt  thirteen  years.  After  writing  this  on  a  roll  of  papy- 
rus, he  committed  suicide. 

Menepta,  becoming  alarmed,  liberated  the  lepers  from  the  quarries. 
He  assigned  them  Avaris,  which  had  remained  in  ruins  since  the  expul- 
sion of  the  Shepherd  Kings.  After  rebuilding  the  city,  the  lepers 
chose  the  priest  Osarsiph,  of  Heliopolis,  for  their  leader.  He  gave 
them  laws,  one  of  which  gave  them  permission  to  kill  and  eat  the  gods, 
the  sacred  animals  of  the  Egyptians.  He  then  directed  them  to  for- 
tify Avaris,  and  also  sent  an  embassy  to  Jerusalem  to  inform  the 
banished  Hyksos  of  the  course  of  events  in  Egypt,  to  invite  them  to 
return,  and  to  promise  them  the  keys  of  Avaris.  The  Shepherd  Kings 
gladly  availed  themselves  of  the  offer  and  returned  with  an  army  of 
two  hundred  thousand  men  to  recover  the  kingdom  of  their  ancestors. 
When  informed  of  this  invasion  of  the  Hyksos,  King  Menepta,  influ- 
enced by  superstition  and  fear,  fled  in  terror  into  Ethiopia,  there  to 
remain  until  the  thirteen  years  of  leper  rule  should  have  passed. 
Thus  Egypt  was  sacrificed  to  the  unclean,  who  rioted  in  the  sacred 
places  until  King  Menepta  returned  with  an  army  of  Egyptians  and 
Ethiopians  and  expelled  the  lepers  and  their  allies,  the  Hyksos,  from 
the  kingdom.  The  name  of  the  priest-leader  of  the  lepers  had,  in 
the  meantime,  been  changed  to  Moyses,  or  Moses.  The  Egyptian 
historians  always  spoke  of  the  Hebrews  as  lepers. 

After  the  reigns  of  SETI  II.  and  SIPHTHAH,  the  Twentieth  Dynasty 
ascended  the  throne  of  Egypt  in  1269  B.  C.,  in  the  person  of  SET- 
NEKHT.  The  next  king  was  RAMESES  III.,  who,  during  a  reign  of 
thirty-two  years  and  in  ten  victorious  campaigns,  restored  to  Egypt 
the  glory  which  she  had  possessed  under  the  elder  kings  of  the  pre- 
ceding dynasty,  subduing  the  Hittites  and  Amorites  of  Canaan  and 
the  Ethiopians,  Libyans  and  Negroes  of  Africa.  Naval  battles  were 
fought  during  this  reign,  as  attested  by  hieroglyphic  inscriptions. 
Rameses  III.  built  the  palace  of  Medinet-Abu  at  Thebes,  of  which 


Ma- 
netho's 
Account 

of  the 
Exodus. 


His 

Further 
Account. 


Twen- 
tieth 
Dynasty. 

Rameses 
III. 


His  Suc- 
cessors. 


56 


Decline  of 
Egypt. 


Priest 
Kings. 


She- 
shonk  I. 


ANCIENT   EGYPT   AND   ETHIOPIA. 

every  pylon,  every  gate,  and  every  chamber  gives  some  account  of  his 
brilliant  exploits.  Rameses  III.  had  four  sons,  each  named  RAMESES, 
who  reigned  in  succession.  RAMESES  VIII.,  who  succeeded  them, 
conducted  some  successful  wars.  He  was  followed  by  seven  other 
kings  bearing  the  same  name,  but  their  reigns  were  short  and  un- 
eventful. Egypt,  which  had  reached  the  pinnacle  of  its  greatness 
under  the  Nineteenth  Dynasty,  rapidly  declined  during  the  Twentieth. 
The  hieroglyphic  inscriptions  no  longer  recount  the  grand  military 
exploits  of  kings,  and  art  and  architecture  decayed.  Egypt's  con- 
quests in  Asia  and  Ethiopia  were  gradually  lost.  From  its  long  con- 
tact with  Asiatic  nations,  Egypt  had  lost  its  national  feeling,  and 
foreign  influence  was  marked  in  the  civil  administration  of  the 
kingdom.  The  Pharaohs  at  this  time  became  allied  by  marriage  with 
foreign  courts,  and  foreign  colonies — Assyrian,  Babylonian  and 
Phoenician — settled  in  the  country;  and  the  constant  intercommuni- 
cation between  the  Egyptians  and  the  Semitic  nations  of  Asia  is 
shown  by  the  presence  of  Semitic  names  and  the  admission  of  Semitic 
words  to  the  Egyptian  language,  as  well  as  by  the  admission  of 
foreign  gods  into  the  Egyptian  sanctuaries,  hitherto  inaccessible  to 
any  deity  outside  of  the  Egyptian  pantheon.  The  overwhelming 
predominance  of  the  priesthood,  whose  influence  pervaded  all  ranks, 
from  the  highest  to  the  lowest,  was  a  barrier  to  thought  and  progress 
of  every  kind.  The  people  were  slavishly  held  to  the  old  forms  of 
religion,  architecture  languished,  no  new  buildings  were  erected,  nor 
additions  made  to  the  magnificent  structures  of  former  ages.  Sculp- 
ture and  painting  derived  no  new  life  from  the  study  of  nature, 
but  confined  themselves  to  slavish  copies  of  old  models  or  dull  and 
meaningless  imitations.  The  priestly  caste  aimed  to  hold  all  things 
at  a  certain  Ievel4  fixed  and  unchangeable.  Thus,  when  progress 
ceased,  decay  at  once  commenced.  The  later  monarchs  of  the 
Twentieth  Dynasty  were  but  instruments  in  the  hands  of  the  priestly 
class. 

During  this  period  of  general  military  and  intellectual  decline 
the  priestly  order  augmented  its  power  and  influence  to  such  an 
extent  that  it  seized  the  throne,  and  the  Twenty-first  Dynasty  riegn- 
ing  at  Tanis,  in  the  Delta,  was  a  race  of  priest-kings.  They  wore 
the  sacerdotal  robes  and  called  themselves  High  Priests  of  Amun. 
PISHAM  I.,  one  of  this  priestly  race,  gave  his  daughter  in  marriage 
to  Solomon.  The  seven  kings  of  this  dynasty  generally  hid  short 
and  uneventful  reigns  (B.  C.  1091-990). 

SHESHONK  I. — the  Shishak  of  the  Old  Testament  and  the  founder 
of  the  Twenty-second  Dynasty — married  the  daughter  of  PISHAM 
II.,  the  last  king  of  the  previous  dynasty,  and  also  called  himself 


THE    NEW   EMPIRE    IN   EGYPT. 


57 


High  Priest  of  Amun.  He  made  Bubastis,  in  the  Delta,  his  capital, 
and  restored  the  military  strength  of  the  kingdom.  It  was  to 
Sheshonk  that  Jeroboam  fled  after  his  unsuccessful  rebellion  against 
King  Solomon;  and  Sheshonk  espoused  the  cause  of  Jeroboam  in 
his  revolt  against  Solomon's  son  and  successor,  Rehoboam,  and  in- 
vading Judah,  took  Jerusalem,  plundered  the  treasures  of  the  Temple 
and  the  palace,  and  compelled  Rehoboam  to  pay  tribute.  One  of 
the  inscriptions  at  Karnak  gives  a  list  of  one  hundred  and  thirty 
towns  and  districts  reduced  by  Sheshonk  in  Syria.  He  made  the 
office  of  High  Priest  of  Amun  hereditary  in  his  family. 

Sheshonk  died  in  972  B.  C.,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  OSOEKOK 
I.,  who  reigned  fifteen  years  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  PEHOR. 
OSORKON  II.,  the  fourth  king  of  this  dynasty,  is  believed  by  some 
writers  to  have  been  the  Zerah  of  Scripture,  who  invaded  Syria  and  was 
defeated  by  Asa,  King  of  Judah,  in  the  battle  of  Mareshah  (2  Chron. 
xiv.  9—14).  The  remaining  kings  of  the  Twenty-second  Dynasty, 
which  ended  with  TAKELOT  II.  in  847  B.  C.,  were  insignificant  person- 
ages ;  and  the  process  of  decay  and  disintegration  rapidly  went  on  and 
was  aggravated  by  the  employment  of  Libyan  mercenaries  in  prefer- 
ence to  native  soldiers.  Semi-independent  principalities  sprang  up  in 
different  parts  of  the  kingdom,  successfully  defying  every  effort  of 
the  Pharaohs  to  preserve  the  unity  of  the  nation.  The  utter  decay 
of  the  national  spirit  paralyzed  both  sovereign  and  people. 

The  Twenty-third  Dynasty,  (B.  C.  847-758),  which  ruled  at 
Tanis,  comprised  four  kings,  none  of  them  famous,  and  whose  reigns 
were  characterized  by  revolutions  and  civil  wars.  The  Northern 
Ethiopian  kingdom,  which  had  Napata  for  its  capital,  was  founded 
by  Piankhi,  a  descendant  of  the  priest-kings  of  the  Twenty-firs 
Egyptian  Dynasty.  Piankhi  became  virtual  master  of  Egypt,  which 
according  to  his  stele  found  at  Gebel-Berkal,  was  at  this  time 
divided  into  seven  kingdoms,  each  ruled  by  a  native  Egyptian  prince, 
who  reigned  under  the  suzerainty  of  Piankhi.  Tafnekht,  who  ruled 
in  the  Western  Delta  and  held  Sais  and  Memphis,  endeavored  to 
cast  off  the  yoke  of  Piankhi,  and  headed  a  revolt  which  was  joined 
by  the  other  native  Egyptian  princes.  Piankhi's  army  took  Thebes, 
defeated  the  rebel  fleet,  besieged  and  took  Hermopolis,  defeated  the 
rebel  fleet  a  second  time  at  Sutensenen  and  gained  another  great 
victory  on  land.  Namrut,  the  Hermopolitan  king,  besieged  the 
Ethiopian  garrison  in  Hermopolis  and  recovered  the  city.  There- 
upon Piankhi,  in  person,  led  an  army  against  Hermopolis,  and  laid 
siege  to  the  city,  which  he  finally  compelled  Namrut  to  surrender. 
Piankhi  also  forced  Pefaabast,  king  of  Heracleopolis  Magna,  to 
surrender,  and  then  attacked  Memphis,  which  was  defended  by  a 


Osor- 
konl. 
Pehor. 
Osor- 
kon  II. 


Egyptian 
Decay. 


Ethiopian 
Conquest 
of  Egypt. 


58 


Sabaco. 


Assyrian 
Conquest 
of  Egypt. 

Shabatok. 
Tirhakah. 


Destruc- 
tion of  the 
Assyrian 
Army. 


Egypt 

under 

Ethiopia 

and 

Assyria 
Alter- 
nately. 


ANCIENT   EGYPT  AND   ETHIOPIA. 

strong  garrison  devoted  to  Tafnekht.  After  a  desperate  resistance 
and  frightful  slaughter  Memphis  was  taken,  and  its  fall  hastened 
the  restoration  of  Piankhi's  authority  over  all  Egypt.  The  revolt 
ended  with  the  submission  of  Osorkon,  king  of  Bubastis,  and  Tafnekht, 
the  rebel  leader,  both  of  whom  were  generously  pardoned  by  Piankhi, 
after  taking  a  new  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  Ethiopian  sovereign,  who 
allowed  all  the  native  rebel  kings  to  retain  their  respective  thrones. 
But  in  a  few  years,  Egypt  revolted  under  the  leadership  of  BEK-EN- 
EANF,  called  Bocchoris  by  the  Greeks,  a  native  of  Sais,  who  was  the 
only  king  of  the  Twenty-fourth  Dynasty.  Bocchoris,  however,  was 
soon  conquered  by  Sabaco,  or  Shabak,  the  Ethiopian  king  reigning 
at  Napata,  and  was  burned  alive  in  punishment  for  his  rebellion. 

SABACO,  the  Ethiopian,  thus  founded  the  Twenty-fifth  Dynasty, 
and  is  known  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  as  So,  or  Sevah.  He  entered 
into  an  alliance  with  Hoshea,  King  of  Israel,  and  the  Syrian  princes 
against  Sargon,  King  of  Assyria,  but  was  defeated  by  the  Assyrian 
monarch  in  the  great  battle  of  Raphia,  near  the  eastern  borders  of 
Egypt,  B.  C.  718.  Sabaco  fled  to  Ethiopia,  retaining  possession 
of  Upper  Egypt;  while  the  sway  of  the  Assyrians  was  established 
over  the  Delta  and  Middle  Egypt,  over  which  they  placed  tributary 
native  princes,  their  policy  being  to  weaken  Egypt  by  dividing  it 
as  much  as  possible.  Sabaco's  son  and  successor,  SHABATOK,  for  a 
short  time  ruled  all  Egypt,  but  was  deprived  of  the  Ethiopian  crown 
by  TIRHAKAH,  or  Tehrak;  while  the  petty  native  Egyptian  princes 
formed  an  alliance  with  Hezekiah,  king  of  Judah,  against  Sennacherib, 
King  of  Assyria^  but  the  allies  were  defeated  in  the  South  of  Pales- 
tine and  submitted  to  the  sway  of  the  victorious  Assyrians.  Instigated 
by  Tirhakah,  the  Egyptian  princes  and  the  King  of  Judah  again 
rose  in  arms  against  the  Assyrian  king.  Again  Sennacherib  took 
the  field  against  the  allies  and  advanced  to  Pelusium,  in  the  eastern 
part  of  Lower  Egypt,  but  his  army  of  one  hundred  and  eighty-five 
thousand  men  was  destroyed  by  a  strange  panic  which  seized  them 
in  the  night,  and  which  the  Jews  and  Egyptians  considered  a  miracu- 
lous interposition,  B.  C.  698.  Sennacherib  fled  in  dismay  to  Nineveh 
and  abandoned  his  conquests.  The  Assyrian  defeat  enabled  Tirhakah 
to  invade  Egypt,  kill  Shabatok  and  reduce  the  whole  land  under  Ethio- 
pian dominion.  Tirhakah  was  at  once  involved  in  a  struggle  with 
Esarhaddon,  King  of  Assyria,  Sennacherib's  son  and  successor,  who, 
in  672  B.  C.,  invaded  Egypt,  captured  Memphis  and  Thebes,  drove 
Tirhakah  back  into  Ethiopia,  and  established  the  Assyrian  sway  once 
more  over  all  Egypt,  whose  twenty  native  princes  were  reduced  to  a 
state  of  vassalage  under  the  Assyrian  monarch.  A  few  years  after- 
ward, however,  Tirhakah  returned  and  expelled  the  Assyrian  garri- 


THE    NEW    EMPIRE    IN   EGYPT. 


59 


sons  from  Egypt,  which  again  acknowledged  the  Ethiopian  dominion ; 
but  his  triumph  was  of  short  duration,  as  he  was  again  deprived  of 
his  Egyptian  conquest  by  Esarhaddon's  successor,  Asshur-bani-pal, 
who  won  the  native  Egyptian  princes  over  to  the  Assyrian  interest. 
Being  allowed  more  local  freedom  by  the  Assyrian  king,  they  pre- 
ferred his  rule  to  that  of  the  more  oppressive  Ethiopian  monarch. 
Tirhakah's  stepson  and  successor,  RUT-AMMON — the  Urdamane  of 
the  Assyrian  inscriptions — endeavored  to  maintain  the  Ethiopian 
power  in  Egypt;  and  descending  the  Nile,  he  re-occupied  Thebes 
and  Memphis,  drove  the  Assyrians  out  of  Egypt  and  made  himself 
master  of  the  country;  but  was  soon  driven  back  into  Ethiopia  by 
Asshur-bani-pal.  Rut-ammon's  successor,  MI-AMMON-NUT,  tells  us 
that  in  the  first  year  of  his  reign  (about  B.  C.  660),  he  dreamed 
that  a  serpent  appeared  on  his  right  hand  and  another  on  his  left, 
and  when  he  woke  they  had  disappeared.  The  interpreters  informed 
him  that  this  signified  that  he  would  rule  all  Egypt.  Thereupon  Mi- 
ammon-Nut  led  a  hundred  thousand  men  into  Egypt,  being  hailed 
as  a  deliverer  in  Upper  Egypt,  against  the  Assyrians,  who  had 
allowed  the  temples  to  go  to  decay,  overturned  the  statues  of 
the  gods,  confiscated  the  temple  revenues,  and  restrained  the 
priests  from  exercising  their  offices.  Mi-ammon-Nut  proclaimed 
himself  the  champion  of  religion,  visited  the  temples,  led  the  images 
in  procession,  offered  rich  sacrifices  and  paid  every  respect  to  the 
priestly  colleges.  For  this  reason  he  was  everywhere  received  with 
acclamations  in  Upper  Egypt.  In  Lower  Egypt  he  was  opposed, 
but  after  a  great  victory  at  Memphis,  he  occupied  that  city  and  en- 
larged and  beautified  the  temple  of  Phthah.  The  chapel  to  Phthah- 
Sokari-Osiris,  recently  uncovered  by  M.  Mariette,  is  full  of  Mi- 
ammon-Nut's  sculptures  and  inscriptions,  its  stones  being  inlaid  with 
gold,  its  paneling  made  of  acacia-wood  scented  with  frankincense,  its 
doors  of  polished  copper  and  their  frames  of  iron.  The  princes  of 
the  Delta  submitted  and  were  generously  pardoned,  governing  their 
towns  as  Ethiopian  and  no  longer  as  Assyrian  vassals.  Mi-ammon- 
Nut  returned  to  Ethiopia,  and  the  Ethiopian  yoke  was  soon  shaken 
off  by  the  Egyptians.  The  petty  native  Egyptian  states  for  many 
years  remained  tributary  to  Assyria,  as  the  employment  of  foreign 
mercenaries,  which  had  so  long  prevailed  in  Egypt,  had  deadened 
the  national  spirit  and  patriotism  of  the  Egyptian  people,  and  thus 
made  it  easy  for  the  Assyrians  to  hold  the  country  in  subjection. 

PSAMMETICHTTS,  one  of  the  native  viceroys  under  the  Assyrian  mon- 
arch, encouraged  by  the  growing  weakness  of  the  Assyrian  Empire, 
which  was  obliged  to  recall  its  garrisons  from  Egypt  to  defend  itself 
Against  the  destructive  inroads  of  Scythian  hordes  from  Central 


Psam- 
metichus 
Recovers 
Egyptian 

Inde- 
pendence. 


60 


His  Wise 
Rule. 


His  Wars. 


Migration 

to 
Ethiopia. 


Neko. 


Circum- 
naviga- 
tion of 
Africa. 


ANCIENT   EGYPT   AND    ETHIOPIA. 

Asia,  seized  the  opportunity  to  throw  off  his  allegiance  to  Assyria, 
and  crushing  the  opposition  of  the  native  viceroys,  founded  the 
Twenty-sixth  Dynasty,  thus  placing  Egypt  once  more  under  the 
sway  of  its  native  kings,  after  a  century  of  foreign  dominion,  Ethio- 
pian and  Assyrian,  B.  C.  632.  Psammetichus  conciliated  the 
Ethiopian  party  by  marrying  the  daughter  and  heiress  of  the  King 
of  Thebes,  whom  he  had  deposed,  and  thus  secured  the  adhesion  of 
Upper  Egypt,  where  the  Ethiopians  were  still  popular.  He  was  a 
wise  and  liberal  sovereign,  and  under  his  rule  the  arts  and  sciences 
began  to  revive.  He  constructed  many  great  works  throughout  the 
kingdom.  The  new  culture  was  not  purely  native  Egyptian.  Foreign 
wars,  colonization  and  commercial  intercourse  had  brought  immense 
numbers  of  foreign  settlers — Ethiopians,  Phoenicians,  Jews  and 
Greeks — into  the  Egyptian  cities.  The  new  art  was  widely  different 
from  the  classic  art  of  Old  Egypt.  The  Egypt  of  the  Pharaohs 
was  beyond  resurrection,  the  old  civilization  had  perished,  and  the 
native  tongue  had  been  corrupted. 

Psammetichus  was  also  a  great  warrior.  He  reduced  part  of 
Ethiopia  and  subdued  the  Philistines,  but  his  continuance  of  the  use 
of  foreign  troops  and  his  employment  of  Greek  mercenaries  offended 
the  warrior  class  of  Egypt,  of  whom  two  hundred  and  forty  thousand 
emigrated  to  Ethiopia,  rejecting  every  entreaty  of  Psammetichus  to 
return  to  their  native  land,  and  thus  striking  a  fatal  blow  at  the 
reviving  prosperity  of  Egypt.  Psammetichus  attempted  the  conquest 
of  Palestine  and  Syria,  but  was  thwarted  in  his  designs  by  the  stub- 
born resistance  of  the  Philistine  city  of  Ashdod,  which  endured  a 
siege  of  twenty-nine  years  before  it  was  taken.  He  encouraged  com- 
merce and  friendly  intercourse  with  other  nations. 

Psammetichus  died  in  610  B.  C.,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
NEKO,  under  whom  the  navy  and  commerce  of  Egypt  were  largely 
augmented.  The  great  increase  in  the  number  of  foreign  colonists 
in  Egypt  gave  rise  to  a  new  class  of  interpreters,  through  whose 
medium  foreign  intercourse  was  immensely  facilitated.  Neko  endeav- 
ored to  reopen  the  great  canal  from  the  Nile  to  the  Red  Sea,  which 
had  been  constructed  during  the  reign  of  Rameses  the  Great,  but  aban- 
doned because  the  oracle  had  instructed  him  that  he  was  laboring  for 
the  barbarian.  Under  Neko's  auspices,  an  Egyptian  fleet,  manned 
by  Phanician  seamen,  sailed  down  the  Red  Sea,  and  after  an  absence 
of  three  years,  during  which  they  twice  landed,  sowed  grain  and  gath- 
ered a  harvest,  they  returned  to  Egypt  by  way  of  the  Pillars  of 
Hercules  (Straits  of  Gibraltar)  and  the  Mediterranean;  thus  making 
the  circumnavigation  of  Africa  two  thousand  years  before  the  famous 
voyage  of  Vasco  da  Gama  around  the  same  continent. 


THE    NEW    EMPIRE    IN    EGYPT. 


61 


Neko's  military  enterprises  were  blessed  with  but  varied  fortune. 
The  great  empire  of  Assyria  had  already  fallen  before  the  conquer- 
ing arms  of  Media  and  Babylon.  Neko  prepared  to  dispute  the 
dominion  of  the  Avorld  with  the  Babylonian  monarch.  After  invading 
Palestine  and  defeating  and  killing  Josiah,  King  of  Judah,  at  Me- 
giddo,  Neko  conquered  all  the  country  eastward  to  the  Euphrates ; 
but  Nabopolassar,  King  of  Babylon,  sent  his  son  Nebuchadnezzar, 
with  a  large  army,  to  drive  the  Egyptians  out  of  Asia.  In  the  great 
and  decisive  battle  of  Carchemish,  Neko  was  totally  defeated  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  and  Egypt's  power  in  the  East  was  ended  forever, 
all  of  Neko's  Asiatic  conquests  falling  into  the  hands  of  Babylon, 

B.  C.  605. 

Neko  died  in  594  B.  C.,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  PSAMMIS, 
whose  short  reign  of  six  years  was  only  distinguished  for  an  expedi- 
tion into  Ethiopia.  His  son  and  successor,  UAHABEA — the  Pharaoh 
Hophra  of  Scripture  and  the  Apries  of  Herodotus — who  reigned  nine- 
teen years,  renewed  the  warlike  schemes  of  his  grandfather,  besieged 
Sidon  and  fought  a  naval  battle  with  Tyre,  but  failed  in  his  attempt 
to  conquer  Phoenicia.  He  formed  an  alliance  with  Zedekiah,  King  of 
Judah,  who  endeavored  to  free  himself  from  the  Babylonian  yoke ;  but 
the  great  Babylonian  king,  Nebuchadnezzar,  quickly  invaded  Pales- 
tine, besieged  and  took  Jerusalem,  pillaged  the  city  and  the  Temple, 
and  thus  broke  the  power  of  the  allies  and  put  an  end  to  the  struggle 
by  driving  the  Egyptian  monarch  back  into  his  own  kingdom.  Uaha- 
bra  was  afterward  defeated  in  an  expedition  against  the  Greek  colony 
of  Cyrene,  west  of  Egypt,  in  consequence  of  which  his  native  soldiers 
revolted  and  dethroned  him;  and  the  revolutionary  leader,  AMASIS, 
with  the  aid  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  who  had  twice  invaded  Egypt  (B. 

C.  581  and  570),  was  placed  upon  the  Egyptian  throne  as  king,  tribu- 
tary to  the  Babylonian  monarch. 

Amasis  reigned  forty-one  years,  at  first  as  a  tributary  to  Babylon, 
but  he  afterward  cast  off  this  yoke  and  increased  his  influence  by 
marrying  Nitocris,  the  sister  of  his  predecessor.  He  adorned  Sais, 
his  capital,  with  magnificent  buildings;  and  numerous  monuments  of 
his  reign,  found  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  attest  his  liberal  patron- 
age of  the  arts ;  while  his  friendly  foreign  policy  toward  Cyrene  and 
the  other  Greek  states,  and  his  encouragement  to  Greek  merchants  to 
settle  in  Egypt,  added  immensely  to  the  wealth  of  the  country.  He 
conquered  the  island  of  Cyprus  and  reduced  it  to  tribute. 

Alarmed  by  the  growing  power  of  Persia  under  its  renowned  mon- 
arch, Cyrus  the  Great,  who  had  conquered  Media  and  Babylon,  Amasis 
allied  himself  with  Croesus,  King  of  Lydia,  and  Polycrates  of  Samos ; 
but  before  his  policy  was  productive  of  any  results,  he  died,  B.  C. 


Neko's 
Wars. 


Battle  of 

Car- 
chemish. 


Psammis. 

Uahabra. 
His  Wars. 


Amasis. 


His  Long 
Reign. 

His 
Works. 


Alliance 
against 
Persia. 


62 

Psam- 

menitus. 


Battle  of 
Pelu- 


Persian 
Conquest 
of  Egypt. 


Egyptian 
Revolts. 


Egypt's 
Fate. 


ANCIENT   EGYPT   AND    ETHIOPIA. 

525,  and  was  succeeded  on  the  throne  of  Egypt  by  PSAMMENITUS. 
Cambyses,  King  of  Persia,  the  son  and  successor  of  Cyrus  the  Great, 
was  already  on  the  march  toward  Egypt.  The  Egyptian  army  ad- 
vanced to  Pelusium  to  meet  the  invader,  but  was  there  defeated  in  a 
pitched  battle  and  driven  back  to  Memphis,  the  capital,  which  was 
besieged  and  taken  by  the  Persian  king.  Psammenitus  was  taken 
prisoner  after  a  reign  of  only  six  months,  and  soon  afterward  put  to 
death  by  the  hard-hearted  Cambyses,  who  suspected  him  of  a  design 
to  recover  his  power.  With  the  tragic  end  of  Psammenitus  perished 
the  ancient  kingdom  of  Egypt,  which  had  existed  for  over  two  thou- 
sand years,  from  the  time  of  the  founding  of  the  Old  Empire  by 
Menes ;  and  the  celebrated  land  of  the  Pharaohs  became  a  mere  prov- 
ince of  the  vast  Medo-Persian  Empire  (B.  C.  525). 

The  tyranny  and  cruelty  of  Cambyses  produced  in  the  hearts  of 
the  Egyptians  the  most  implacable  hatred  of  Persia;  and  during  a 
period  of  two  centuries  they  constantly  plotted  against  the  Twenty- 
seventh,  or  Persian  Dynasty,  and  under  three  native  dynasties — the 
Twenty-eighth,  Twenty-ninth  and  Thirtieth — regained  their  inde- 
pendence, which  they  as  often  lost.  The  accounts  of  these  revolts 
and  short  spasms  of  independence  will  be  narrated  in  the  history  of 
the  Medo-Persian  Empire.  Since  its  conquest  by  the  Persians,  the 
land  of  the  Pharaohs  has  been  successively  under  the  sway  of  the 
Persians,  the  Macedonians,  the  Romans,  the  Saracens,  the  Mamelukes, 
and  the  Ottoman  Turks ;  the  last  of  whom  have  held  the  country  tribu- 
tary for  the  last  four  centuries. 


MANETHO'S    THIRTY    EGYPTIAN    DYNASTIES. 
OLD    EMPIRE. 


CONTEMPORARY  DYNASTIES  FROM  ABOUT  B.  C.  2700  TO  ABOUT  B.  C.  2450. 

FIRST  DYNASTY    (THINITE). 

THIRD  DYNASTY  (MEMPHITE). 

KINGS. 

YEARS  ACCORDING  TO 

KINGS. 

YBARS  ACCORDING  TO 

EUSEBIUS. 

AFRICANUS. 

EUSEBIUS. 

AFRICANUS 

Menes    

60 

27 
39 
42 
20 
26 
18 
26 

62 
57 
31 
23 
20 
26 
18 
26 

Necherophes             . 

28 
29 
7 
17 
16 
19 
42 
30 
26 

Athothis,  or  Thoth.  . 
Unephes   

Tyreis     

Kenkenes   

Mesochris  

Usaphffidus  

Suphis  

Miebidus  

Tosertasis  ......... 

Semerapses  

Aches  

Bieneches  

Sephuris 

Kerpheres  

258 

263 

298 

214 

L0ngitu<l«  East  fro. 


SLEDIT&RRAXiEAX         SEA 


.MAP  OE 

ANCIENT  EGYPT 


THE    NEW    EMPIRE    IN    EGYPT. 


CONTEMPORARY  DYNAi 

!TIES  FROM  ABOUT   B.   C.   2450 

TO  ABOUT   B.   C.   2220. 

SECOND  OR   BRANCH  DY- 
NASTY  (THINITE). 

FOURTH  OR  CHIEF  DY- 
NASTY (MEMPHITE). 

FIFTH    OR    BRANCH    DY- 
NASTY (ELEPHANTINE). 

YEARS. 

Boethus,  or  Bochus..  38 
Koeechus,  or  Kekeou.  39 

YEARS. 

Seneferu,  or  Sorus...  29 
Khufu    >                           RK 

YEARS. 

Usercheres,   or  Osir- 
kef  28 

Binothris    47 
Tlas  17 

ohafra   ) 
Menkaura,    or    Men- 

Sephres  13 
Nephercheres,   or 

Sethenes  41 

cheres    .  .                      63 

Nof  r-ir-ke-re    20 

Chaeres    17 

Ratoises   25 

Sisires,  or  Osir-n-r6.  .     7 

Nephercheres  25 

Bicheris    .  22 

Cheres  20 

Sesochris    48 

Sebercheres     7 

Rathures      44 

Cheneres  30 

Thamphthis   .                     9 

Mencheres    9 

Tancheres  44 

302 

221 

Onnus,  or  U-nus  33 

218 

•SoNtfcMPORARY  DYNASTIES  FROM   ABOUT  B.   C.   2220  TO  ABOUT   B.   C.   2080. 

SECOND 
DYNASTY 
(THINITE). 

SIXTH 
DYNASTY 
(MEMPHITE). 

FIFTH 
DYNASTY 

(ELEPHANTINE.) 

NINTH  DY- 
NASTY (HER- 
ACLEOPOLITE  )  . 

ELEVENTH 
DYNASTY 
(THEBAN). 

Continuing    un- 
der   the    last 
three  kings. 

Othoes  30 

Continuing. 

Achthoes 
the  Antefs 
and  the 
Mentu-hoteps. 

Sixteen  Kings. 

Ammenemes   or 
Amun-m-h6. 

Phios  53 

Methosuphis      7 
Phiops,       or 
Pepi  40 
Menthesuphis    1 
Nitocris,    or 
Neit-akret  12 
143 

CONTEMPORARY  DYNASTIES  FROM  ABOUT  B.  C.  2080  TO  ABOUT  B.  C.  1900. 

^           ^H 

U       DO       "^          * 

H    «    K  ~ 

ftji 

v  

NINTH 
DYNASTY 
(HERACLE- 
OPOLITE). 

^+. 

B  &  $ 

%  3  £ 

III 

FOURTEENTH 
DYNASTY 
(Xom). 

B  B? 

H     K     Q 

H   •   • 

B  *»  • 

E  *  * 

fe^s 

£Q- 

SIXTEENTH 
DYNABTT 

(HTXSOf). 

Continuing 
till  about 
B.  C.  1850. 

Continuing 

Sesonchosis  

Seventy-six 
Kings  in 
484  years. 

Salatis  ....  19 
Bnon   44 
Apachnas  .  36 
Apophis   .  .  61 
Jannas  ....  50 
Asses  49 

259 

Thirty- 
Kings 
in  518 
years. 

Usurtasen  1  46 

Ammenemes    II., 
or     Amun-m-h6 
II  38 

Usurtasen  II  48 
Moeris,  or  Amun- 
m-h.6  III  8 

Ameres  8 

Ammenemes   III., 
or     Amun-m-h6 
IV  8 

Skemiophris  4 

ieb~ 

THIRTEENTH    DY- 
NASTY (  THEBAN  )  . 

ANCIENT   EGYPT   AND   ETHIOPIA. 


MIDDLE    EMPIRE. — (HYKSOS,   oa   SHEPHERD    KINGS.) 


CONTEMPORARY   DYNASTIES   FEOM   ABOUT  B.   C.    1900   TO  ABOUT    B.    C.    1600. 

SEVENTH   AND  EIGHTH 
DYNASTIES    (MEMPHITE). 

TENTH   DYNASTY 
(  HEHACLEOPOLITE  )  . 

SEVENTEENTH    DYNASTY 
(HYKSOS). 

NEW;  EMPIRE. 


EIGHTEENTH  DYNASTY — THEBAN. 

(B.  C.  1600-1400.) 
Amosis,  Aahmes,   or   Ames,    (B.   C. 

1600-1575). 
Amen-hotep    I.,    Amenophis    I.,    or 

Amunoph  I.,  (B.  C.,  1575-1562). 
Thothmes   I. 
Thothmes  II.,  and  Hatusa  or  Amen- 

set,  (B.  C.  1562-1547). 
Thothmes  III.,  (B.  C.  1547-1493). 
Amen-hotep   II.,   Amenophis   II.,  or 

Amunoph  II.,  (B.  C.  1493-1485). 
Thothmes  IV.,  (B.  C.  1485-1477). 
Amen-hotep  III.,  Amenophis  III.,  or 

Amunoph  III.,  (B.  C.  1477-1441). 
Amen-hotep  IV.,  Amenophis  IV.,  or 

Amunoph  IV. 
Saanekht. 
Ai. 

Tutankhamen. 

Horemheb-Merienammon,  or  Horus. 
Resitot,  or  Rathotis. 
NINETEENTH  DYNASTY — THEBAN. 

(B.  C.   1400-1280.) 
Rameses  I. 
Seti  I. 
Rameses    Meriamon,    or    the    Great 

(Sesostris). 

Menepta,  or  Menephthah. 
Seti  II. 
Siphthah. 
TWENTIETH  DYNASTY — THEBAN. 

(B.  C.   1280-1100.) 
Setnekht. 

Rameses  III.,   (B.  C.  1269-1237). 
Rameses  IV. 
Rameses  V. 

Rameses  VI.,  and  Meri-Tum. 
Rameses  VII. 
Rameses  VIII. 
Rameses  IX. 
Rameses  X. 
Rameses  XI. 
Rameses  XII. 
Rameses  XIII. 
TWENTY-FIRST   DYNASTY — TANITE. 

(B.  C.  1100-993.) 
Pehor,  Herhor,  or  Smendes. 
Piankh,  or  Pisham  I. 
Pinetem  I. 
Men-khepr-ra. 


Pa-seb-en-sha. 
Pinetem  II.,  or  Pisham  II. 
Hor-Pasebensha. 
TWENTY-SECOND  DYNASTY — BUBASTITE. 

(B.  C.  993-847.) 
Sheshonk   I.,   or   Shishak   !.,    (B.   C. 

993-972). 

Osorkon  I.,  (B.  C.  972-957). 
Takelot  I.,  (B.  C.  957-956). 
Osorkon  II.,  (B.  C.  956-934). 
Sheshonk  II. 
Takelot  II. 
Sheshonk  III. 
Pimai. 

Sheshonk  IV. 
TWENTY-THIRD    DYNASTY — TANITE. 

(B.  C.  847-758.) 
Petubastes,    or    Petsupasht,    (B.    C. 

847-807). 

Osorkon  IV.,  (B.  C.  807-799). 
Psammus,  or   Psemut,    (B.   C.   799- 

789). 

Zet,  or  Seti  III.,  (B.  C.  789-758). 
TWENTY-FOURTH  DYNASTY — SAITE. 

(B.  C.  758-730.) 
Bekenhauf,  or  Bocchoris. 
TWENTY-FIFTH  DYNASTY — ETHIOPIAN. 

(B.  C.  724-650.) 

Sabaco,  or  Shabak,  (B.  C.  724-719). 
Shabatok,  (B.  C.  712-698). 
Tirhakah,  or  Tehrak,  (B.  C.  698-667.) 
Rut-ammon,  (B.  C.  667-660). 
Mi-ammon-Nut,   (B.  C.  600-S50). 
TWENTY-SIXTH  DYNASTY — SAITE. 

(B.  C.  650-525.) 
Psammetichus,  or  Psamatik  L,  (B.  C. 

665-610). 

Neko,  (B.  C.  610-594). 
Psammis,   or   Psamatik   II.,    (B.    C. 

594-588). 
Uahabra,  Apries,  or  Pharaoh  Hophra, 

(B.  C.  588-569). 
Amasis,   Aahmes,   or   Ames,    (B.   C. 

569-525). 
Psammenitus,  or  Psamatik  I IL,   (B. 

C.  525). 
TWENTY-SEVENTH  DYNASTY — PERSIAN. 

(B.  C.  525-332.) 
TWENTY-EIGHTH  DYNASTY — NATIVE. 

(B.  C.  460-455.) 
Amyrtaeus. 


EGYPTIAN   CIVILIZATION. 


65 


TWENTY-NINTH  DYNASTY — MENDESIAN. 

(B.  C.  405-384.) 
Neferites,  or  Nefaorot,  (B.  C.  405- 

399). 

Achoris,  or  Hakar,  (B.  C.  399-386). 
Psammuthis,   (B.  C.  386-385). 
Nepherites  II.,  (B.  C.  384). 


THIRTIETH  DYNASTY — SEBENNYTIC. 

(B.  C.  384-346). 
Nectanebo   I.,   or   Nekht-nebef,    (B. 

C.  384-366). 

Teos,  or  Tachos,  (B.  C.  366-364). 
Nectanebo   I.,  or   Nekht-nebef,   (B, 


SECTION  V.— EGYPTIAN  CIVILIZATION. 

MODERN  ethnologists,  in  general,  regard  the  ancient  Egyptians  as 
of  Asiatic  origin,  since  they  differed  so  much  from  other  African 
races,  such  as  the  Berbers  and  the  Negroes,  in  language,  the  shape 
of  their  skulls,  and  their  physiognomy.  The  skulls  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians,  and  of  their  legitimate  descendants,  the  modern  Copts,  are 
eminently  Caucasian ;  while  the  Egyptian  language  has  analogies  con- 
necting it  with  the  Aryan  and  Semitic  tongues.  The  conclusion  that 
the  Egyptians,  at  least  the  upper  and  middle  classes  of  them,  were 
Asiatic  immigrants  into  the  Nile  valley,  is  therefore  a  safe  one.  They 
are  believed  to  have  been  kindred  with  other  races  of  South-western 
Asia,  such  as  the  Canaanites,  the  primitive  Chaldaeans,  and  the  South- 
ern Arabs.  We  must  accordingly  conclude  that  Syria  or  Arabia  was 
the  cradle  of  the  Egyptian  nation. 

Some  have  maintained  that  the  immigration  was  from  the  south  of 
the  Nile  valley,  and  that  the  Egyptians  were  of  Ethiopian  origin ;  but 
recent  research  has  shown  conclusively  that  the  movement  of  the  Egyp- 
tians was  from  north  to  south.  Says  Mr.  Birch,  the  latest  English 
historian  of  Egypt:  "The  study  of  the  monuments  furnishes  incon- 
trovertible evidence  that  the  historical  series  of  Egyptian  temples, 
tombs  and  cities,  constructed  on  either  bank  of  the  Nile,  follow  one 
upon  another  in  chronological  order,  in  such  sort  that  the  monuments 
of  the  greatest  antiquity,  the  Pyramids  for  instance,  are  situated 
furthest  to  the  north;  while  the  nearer  one  approaches  the  Ethiopian 
cataracts,  the  more  do  the  monuments  lose  the  stamp  of  antiquity,  and 
the  more  plainly  do  they  show  the  decline  of  art,  of  beauty,  and  of 
good  taste.  Moreover,  in  Ethiopia  itself  the  existing  remains  present 
us  with  a  style  of  art  that  is  absolutely  devoid  of  originality.  At  the 
first  glance  one  can  easily  see  that  it  represents  Egyptian  art  in  its 
degeneracy,  and  that  art  ill  understood  and  ill  executed.  The  utmost 
height  to  which  Ethiopian  civilization  ever  reached  was  a  mere  rude 
imitation,  alike  in  science  and  in  art,  of  Egyptian  models." 

The  color  of  the  ancient  Egyptians  was  brown,  like  that  of  the 
modern  Copts.  For  this  we  have  the  authority  of  the  monuments. 
The  women  were  lighter  than  the  men,  being  depicted  on  the  monu- 
ments as  yellow.  The  hair  was  usually  black  and  straight,  though 

VOL.   1. — 5 


Origin  of 
the 

Ancient 
Egyp- 
tians. 


Birch's 
Opinion. 


Color  and 
Hair- 


66 


ANCIENT   EGYPT   AND    ETHIOPIA. 


Features. 


Form  and 
Move- 
ments. 


Tribes. 


Intellec- 
tualRank. 


sometimes  it  grew  in  short,  crisp  curls.  Men  generally  shared  botli 
hair  and  beard,  and  went  about  with  their  heads  perfectly  bare,  or 
else  wore  wigs  or  a  close-fitting  cap.  Women  always  wore  their  own 
hair,  and  plaited  it  in  long  tresses,  sometimes  extending  down  to  the 
waist.  The  hair  of  the  wigs,  and  that  found  sometimes  on  the  heads 
of  mummies,  is  coarse. 

The  features  of  the  Egyptians  resembled  those  of  their  Syrian 
neighbors.  The  forehead  was  straight,  but  low;  the  nose  generally 
long,  though  sometimes  slightly  aquiline.  The  lips  were  over  full, 
but  the  upper  lip  was  short,  and  the  mouth  was  seldom  too  wide.  The 
chin  was  good,  being  well  rounded,  and  neither  receding  nor  extend- 
ing too  far.  The  eye  was  a  long,  narrow  slit,  like  that  of  the  Chi- 
nese, but  placed  horizontally,  instead  of  obliquely.  The  eyebrow,  like- 
wise long  and  thin,  shaded  the  eye.  The  coloring  was  always  dark ; 
the  hair,  eyebrows,  eyelashes,  and  beard  (where  there  was  one),  being 
black,  or  nearly  so,  and  the  eyes  black  or  dark  brown. 

The  Egyptians  resembled  the  modern  Arabs  in  form.  They  were 
tall,  with  long  and  supple  limbs,  and  with  the  head  well  placed  upon 
the  shoulders.  Their  movements  were  graceful,  their  carriage  digni- 
fied. Generally,  however,  their  frames  were  spare,  and  their  hands  and 
feet  unduly  large.  The  women  were  as  thin  as  the  men,  and  their 
forms  were  almost  similar.  Children,  however,  were  sufficiently 
plump. 

The  Egyptians  were  divided  into  distinct  tribes.  We  read  in  the 
Mosaic  account  of  Ludim?  Anamim,  Lebahim,  Naphtuhim,  Pathrusim, 
Casluhim  and  Caphtorim  as  distinct  "sons  of  Misraim" — as  separate 
tribes  of  the  people  who  occupied  the  "two  Egypts." 

The  Egyptians  ranked  high  intellectually  among  the  ancient  na- 
tions. In  art  they  exhibited  wonderful  power.  Mr.  Birch  says  that 
their  architecture  "was  on  the  grandest  scale,  and  dwarfs  the  Greek 
in  comparison."  The  Egyptians  had  a  high  moral  standard  theo- 
retically, but  practically  their  morals  were  very  lax.  Says  Brugsch, 
the  eminent  German  Egyptologist:  "The  forty-two  laws  of  the  Egyp- 
tian religion,  contained  in  the  125th  chapter  of  the  Book  of  the  Dead, 
fall  short  in  nothing  of  the  teachings  of  Christianity."  The  same 
authority  further  says  that  Moses,  in  compiling  his  code  of  laws,  did 
only  "translate  into  Hebrew  the  religious  precepts  which  he  found  in 
the  sacred  books"  of  the  Egyptians,  among  whom  he  had  been  brought 
up.  The  Egyptian  women  were  notoriously  loose  in  their  character, 
exceedingly  immodest  and  licentious.  The  men  openly  practiced  im- 
purity, and  boasted  of  it  in  their  writings.  An  inclination  to  luxu- 
rious living  was  also  a  defect  in  the  Egyptian  character;  and  drunk- 
enness was  a  common  vice  among  both  sexes,  all  the  appeals  and  ex- 


EGYPTIAN    CIVILIZATION.  57 

hortations  of  the  priests  in  favor  of  temperance  being  unavailing  to 
stem  the  tide  of  general  debauchery.  Sensual  pleasure  and  amuse- 
ment seemed  the  ends  of  existence  among  the  upper  classes  in  general. 
False  hair  was  worn,  dyes  and  cosmetics  were  used  to  produce  artificial 
beauty,  magnificent  dress  was  worn,  equipages  were  splendid,  great 
banquets  were  frequently  held,  games  and  sports  were  constant,  and 
life  was  passed  in  feasting,  sport  and  a  continual  succession  of  enjoy- 
ments. The  effect  of  self-indulgence  is  seen  in  the  national  decay  of 
these  people,  and  their  successive  subjections  to  hardier  races,  such 
as  the  Ethiopians,  Assyrians,  Babylonians,  Persians,  and  Macedonian 
Greeks. 

Their  family  affection  is  shown  by  the  paintings,  where  husbands  Character- 
and  wives  are  everywhere  represented  with  their  arms  around  each 
other's  necks.  The  Egyptians  were  industrious,  cheerful  and  gay 
even  under  hardships;  but  they  were  cruel,  vindictive,  treacherous, 
avaricious,  superstitious  and  servile.  The  use  of  the  bastinado  was 
universal,  being  employed  to  inflict  punishment  for  minor  offenses, 
while  superiors  freely  beat  inferiors.  The  poor  peasantry  were  forced 
by  blows  to  yield  to  the  extortions  of  the  tax-gatherers,  and  slaves 
were  impelled  to  labor  under  fear  of  the  rod,  which  the  taskmaster 
freely  applied  to  the  backs  of  laggards.  The  passions  of  the  Egyp- 
tians often  broke  out  in  riot,  insurrection  and  murder.  They  were 
extremely  fanatical  in  religious  belief,  and  ready  to  wipe  out  in  blood 
any  insult  to  their  religion. 

They  were  at  times  timid,  submissive  and  sycophantic.     The  lower  Servility, 
classes  prostrated  themselves  before  their  superiors,  tamely  submitting 
to  blows.     The  great  nobles  were  equally  servile  to  their  sovereign, 
addressing  him  as  a  god,  and  ascribing  to  him  their  continued  exis- 
tence in  this  life. 

Though  successful  in  their  early  wars,  when  their  disciplined  troops     Military 
attacked  undisciplined  hordes,  they  were  defeated  whenever  they  en-     DeflBCt8- 
countered  a  brave  and  skillful  enemy.     Their  readiness  to  break  en- 
gagements when  their  fulfillment  was  inconvenient,  made  them  unre- 
liable allies ;  and  for  this  reason  the  Hebrew  prophet  Isaiah  spoke  of 
Egypt  as  a  "bruised  reed,  whereon  if  a  man  lean,  it  will  go  into  his 
hand  and  pierce  it." 

The  government  of  Egypt  was  a  theocratic  monarchy,  the  king  Govern- 
being  the  earthly  representative  of  the  Deity.  His  body  was  consid- 
ered sacred,  and  he  was  worshiped  as  a  god.  His  title  of  Phrah,  or 
Pharaoh,  signifying  the  Sun,  ranked  him  as  the  emblem  of  Helios, 
or  Phrah,  or  Ra,  the  Sun-god.  His  right  and  duty  was  to  preside 
over  the  sacrifices  and  to  pour  out  libations  to  the  gods.  He  was 
thus  the  head  of  the  national  religion,  as  well  as  the  civil  and  political 


gg  ANCIENT   EGYPT   AND   ETHIOPIA. 

head  of  the  state.  The  kingly  office  was  hereditary,  but  the  monarch 
was  not  an  absolute  ruler;  and  the  political  system  was  a  combination 
of  theocracy,  monarchy  and  hierarchy,  the  king's  power  being  more  or 
less  curtailed  by  the  power  of  the  priesthood,  or  hierarchical  class. 
In  this  respect  Egypt  differed  from  an  Asiatic  despotism,  where  the 
sovereign  was  unlimited  lord  and  master  over  his  subjects.  An  Egyp- 
tian Pharaoh  did  not  possess  unlimited  power  over  the  lives  and  prop- 
erty of  his  people,  but  his  authority  was  strictly  defined  and  limited 
by  law,  and  nothing  was  left  to  passion  or  caprice.  The  monarch, 
however,  possessed  the  right  to  make  new  laws.  The  king's  public 
duties  and  personal  habits  were  minutely  defined  by  religious  regula- 
tions, the  sacred  books  prescribing  his  food,  drink,  dress  and  the  em- 
ployment of  his  time,  thus  allowing  him  less  individual  freedom  than 
was  enjoyed  by  the  humblest  and  most  degraded  of  his  subjects.  He 
was  not  permitted  to  give  way  to  excessive  indulgence  of  any  kind. 
No  slave  or  hireling  was  permitted  to  hold  office  about  his  person,  for 
fear  that  he  might  be  contaminated  by  such  unworthy  presence,  but 
those  of  the  highest  rank  only  were  accorded  the  privilege  of  attend- 
ing him  and  ministering  to  his  wants.  The  ritual  of  every  morning's 
worship  constantly  refreshed  his  memory  with  a  knowledge  of  the  vir- 
tues of  former  kings,  and  reminded  him  of  his  own  kingly  and  personal 
duties.  After  his  death  his  body  was  placed  in  an  open  court,  where 
any  and  every  one  of  his  subjects  might  bring  accusations  against 
him;  and  if  his  conduct  in  life  was  proven  to  have  been  unworthy 
his  exalted  station,  he  was  forever  excluded  from  the  tombs  of  his 
ancestors. 

Castes.  The  ancient  Egyptians  were  divided  into  classes  or  castes,  distin- 
guished by  their  ranks  and  occupations ;  the  priests  forming  the  high- 
est caste,  the  warriors  the  second  caste,  and  husbandmen,  gardeners, 
boatmen  and  herdsmen  the  lowest  caste. 

Priest-  The  priesthood  possessed  great  authority  in  the  state  and  were  the 
"power  behind  the  throne."  So  far  as  the  sovereign  was  concerned 
they  used  their  power  wisely  and  well.  Their  habits  of  life  were  sim- 
ple and  moderate.  Their  diet  was  plain  in  quality  and  limited  in 
quantity,  and  they  abstained  from  fish,  mutton,  swine's  flesh,  beans, 
peas,  garlic,  leeks  and  onions,  which  were  articles  of  food  among  the 
common  people.  They  bathed  twice  a  day  and  twice  during  the  night, 
some  of  the  more  strict  in  water  tasted  by  their  sacred  birds,  the  ibis, 
to  make  sure  of  being  purged  of  all  uncleanness.  Their  abstinence, 
purity  and  humility,  and  their  reputation  for  learning,  enabled  the 
priests  to  hold  the  people  in  religious,  political  and  mental  subjection. 
By  their  knowledge  of  physical  science  they  could  frighten  and  ter- 
rorize the  superstitious  and  ignorant  lower  classes  by  optical  illusions 


EGYPTIAN   CIVILIZATION. 


69 


Soldiers. 


and  other  tricks.  By  their  power  to  try  the  dead  they  could  decide 
the  fate  of  any  man,  from  the  king  to  the  swineherd,  by  refusing 
him  a  passport  to  the  outer  world.  The  priests  prescribed  the  re- 
ligious ritual  of  every  Egyptian,  from  the  king  to  the  meanest  of  his 
subjects. 

The  Egyptian  priesthood  embraced  an  order  including  many  pro-  Its  Rank 
fessions  and  occupations.  They  alone  were  acquainted  with  the  arts 
of  reading  and  writing,  and  with  medicine  and  the  other  sciences. 
They  cultivated  the  science  of  medicine  from  the  earliest  ages.  The 
universal  practice  of  embalming  was  exercised  by  the  physicians,  thus 
enabling  them  to  study  the  effects  of  various  diseases  by  examining  the 
body  after  death.  Asiatic  monarchs  sent  to  Egypt  for  their  physi- 
cians, and  the  fertile  soil  of  the  Nile  valley  furnished  drugs  for  the 
whole  ancient  civilized  world.  Even  in  our  own  time  the  characters 
used  by  druggists  to  denote  drams  and  ounces  are  the  Egyptian 
ciphers  adopted  by  the  Arabs. 

The  soldiers,  or  military  caste,  which  ranked  next  to  the  sacerdotal, 
or  priestly  order,  numbered  about  four  hundred  thousand  persons. 
When  not  engaged  in  military  service,  either  in  foreign  wars,  in  gar- 
risons or  at  the  royal  court,  these  were  settled  on  their  lands,  which 
were  located  principally  on  the  east  side  of  the  Nile  or  in  the  Delta, 
which  portions  of  the  country  were  the  most  exposed  to  hostile  inva- 
sion by  a  foreign  foe.  Each  soldier  was  allotted  about  six  and  a 
half  acres  of  land,  exempt  from  all  taxation  or  tribute ;  and  from  the 
proceeds  of  this  land  he  defrayed  the  expenses  of  his  arms  and  equip- 
ments. The  soldier,  however,  could  not  engage  in  any  art  or  trade. 
The  lands  of  the  priests  and  soldiers  were  considered  privileged  prop- 
erty, while  all  other  lands  were  regarded  as  the  king's  property,  and 
were  rented  by  him  to  farmers,  who  paid  a  yearly  rent  of  one-fifth 
of  the  produce. 

Below  the  priests  and  warriors  were  the  various  unprivileged  castes, 
embracing  husbandmen,  gardeners,  boatmen,  artisans  of  various  kinds, 
and  herdsmen,  comprising  shepherds,  goatherds  and  swineherds. 
These  latter  were  intensely  despised  as  the  most  degraded  of  human 
creatures,  and  were  not  allowed  to  enter  the  temples.  All  castes  below 
the  priesthood  and  the  warrior  class  were  deprived  of  all  political 
rights  and  disqualified  from  ownership  in  land. 

The  two  privileged  castes,  the  priests  and  warriors,  are  believed  to 
have  been  the  descendants  of  the  Asiatic  conquerors  and  immigrants 
into  Egypt,  while  the  lower  classes  were  the  descendants  of  the  Ethi- 
opian aborigines  of  the  Nile  valley.  The  Egyptian  castes  were  not 
as  fixed  as  those  of  the  Hindoos,  as  the  educational  system  enabled 
any  one  of  superior  talent  to  rise  above  his  native  rank.  Says  Rawlin- 


Unprivi- 

leged 

Castes. 


Origin  and 
Nature  of 

theCastes. 


70 


ANCIENT    EGYPT   AND    ETHIOPIA. 


Land 
Owner- 
ship. 


Agricul- 
tural 
Laborers. 


son:  "Castes,  in  the  strictest  sense  of  the  word,  did  not  exist  in 
Egypt,  since  a  son  was  not  absolutely  compelled  to  follow  his  father's 
profession."  Intermarriages  sometimes  occurred  between  members  of 
the  priestly  and  warrior  castes,  and  transitions  between  them  were 
common.  The  same  was  the  case  between  members  of  the  various 
unprivileged  orders.  Still,  in  the  main,  the  same  rank,  professions  and 
occupations  remained  in  the  same  families  for  hundreds  and  hundreds 
of  years,  and  the  evils  of  class  distinction  were  almost  equal  to  those 
of  the  fixed  castes  of  India.  The  upper  classes  despised  all  handi- 
crafts, and  "every  shepherd  was  an  abomination  in  the  sight  of  an 
Egyptian."  There  were  many  slaves  who  had  been  captives  taken  in 
war.  The  class  system  tended  to  discourage  personal  ambition,  and 
thus  to  check  all  progress  and  improvement  after  the  earliest  high 
state  of  civilization  had  been  attained,  and  was  the  principal  cause 
of  the  final  national  decay  of  this  renowned  ancient  people. 

The  land  in  Egypt  belonged  exclusively  to  the  king,  the  priests  and 
the  soldiers,  during  the  period  of  the  New  Empire;  all  other  land- 
owners having  surrendered  their  proprietorship  to  the  king,  while  the 
Hebrew  Joseph  was  prime  minister,  occupying  them  only  afterward 
as  tenants  of  the  crown  by  paying  an  annual  rental  of  one-fifth  of 
the  produce. 

The  lot  of  the  agricultural  laborer  in  Egypt  was  a  hard  one. 
There  were  few  Egyptian  peasants  rich  enough  to  rent  their  farms 
and  till  them  for  themselves.  Most  of  them  were  hired  laborers  work- 
ing on  the  estates  of  others,  under  the  supervision  of  brutal  overseers 
or  taskmasters,  who  applied  the  bastinado  to  the  backs  of  the  idle  or 
refractory  on  the  slightest  pretext.  The  peasant  farmer  was  not 
much  better  off.  Writes  Amenemun  to  Pentaour:  "Have  you  ever 
represented  to  yourself  the  estate  of  the  rustic  who  tills  the  ground? 
Before  he  has  put  the  sickle  to  the  crop,  the  locusts  have  blasted  a 
part  of  it ;  then  come  the  rats  and  the  birds.  If  he  is  slack  in  housing 
his  grain,  the  thieves  are  upon  him.  His  horse  dies  of  weariness  as 
it  drags  the  wain.  Anon,  the  tax-gatherer  arrives;  his  agents  are 
armed  with  clubs ;  he  has  Negroes  with  him,  who  carry  whips  of  palm 
branches.  They  all  cry,  'Give  us  your  grain!'  and  he  has  no  easy 
way  of  avoiding  their  extortionate  demands.  Next,  the  wretch  is 
caught,  bound  and  sent  off  to  work  without  wage  at  the  canals ;  his 
wife  is  taken  and  chained;  his  children  are  stripped  and  plundered." 
Tuaufsakhrat,  in  the  "Praise  of  Learning,"  gives  a  similar  account 
in  these  words:  "The  little  laborer  having  a  field,  he  passes  his  life 
among  rustics ;  he  is  worn  down  for  vines  and  pigs,  to  make  his  kitchen 
of  what  his  fields  have ;  his  clothes  are  heavy  with  their  weight ;  he  is 
bound  as  a  forced  laborer;  if  he  goes  forth  into  the  air,  he  suffers, 


EGYPTIAN    CIVILIZATION.  7^ 

having  to  quit  his  warm  fire-place;  he  is  bastinadoed  with  a  stick  on 
his  legs,  and  seeks  to  save  himself;  shut  against  him  is  the  hall  of 
every  house,  locked  are  all  the  chambers." 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  small  cultivator  was  oppressed  with  Their 
extortionate  taxation,  collected  by  the  brutal  tax-gatherers ;  that  Hard  Lot 
forced  labors  were  exacted  of  him,  and  that  he  was  bastinadoed  with 
a  stick  on  the  back  or  legs  if  he  resisted.  He  was  torn  from  his 
family  and  homestead,  and  forced  to  labor  under  the  hot  Egyptian 
sun  at  cleaning  out  or  banking  up  the  canals.  No  wages  being  paid 
him,  and  insufficient  food  being  furnished  him,  he  often  perished  under 
the  hardships  imposed  upon  him  by  a  merciless  government.  If  an 
iron  constitution  saved  him  and  he  returned  home,  he  frequently  found 
his  family  dispersed,  his  wife  carried  off,  and  his  mud  cabin  in  ruins. 
He  was  regarded  with  contempt,  not  alone  by  the  privileged  classes, 
but  also  by  their  servants,  and  even  by  their  slaves. 

The  laws  of  Egypt  were  remarkable,  and  are  another  evidence  of  Laws, 
the  high  civilization  of  the  people.  Bossuet  has  said  that  "Egypt 
was  the  source  of  all  good  government."  Perjury  was  considered  the 
most  heinous  of  all  crimes — an  offense  alike  against  gods  and  men — 
and  was  punishable  with  death.  Any  one  seeing  a  person  defending 
his  life  against  a  murderer,  and  failing  to  render  him  assistance,  was 
also  capitally  punished,  as  being  equally  guilty  with  the  assassin.  If 
the  witness  were  unable  to  assist  the  defendant,  he  was  bound  to  report 
the  assailant  to  the  lawful  authorities.  A  person  falsely  accusing 
another  was  punished  as  a  calumniator.  Every  Egyptian  was  bound 
to  furnish  the  authorities  with  a  written  statement  of  his  means  of 
livelihood;  and  any  one  giving  a  false  account,  or  following  an  un- 
lawful pursuit,  was  punished  with  death.  A  wilful  murderer  was  like- 
wise put  to  death.  A  judge  who  condemned  an  innocent  person  to 
death  was  punished  as  a  deliberate  murderer.  A  soldier  who  deserted 
his  ranks  was  punished  with  infamy,  but  could  recover  his  lost  honor 
by  future  gallant  behavior.  Making  counterfeit  money,  false 
weights,  scales  or  measures,  falsifying  public  records,  or  forging 
documents,  were  crimes  punished  with  the  loss  of  both  hands.  A 
man's  property  could  be  seized  for  debt,  but  not  his  person ;  and  if  a 
debtor  swore  that  he  owed  nothing  to  a  creditor  who  was  without  a 
bond,  the  debt  was  void.  The  interest  was  never  permitted  to  exceed 
the  principal. 

The  Egyptians  were  the  first  people  to  organize  a  regular  army,      Army 
and  thus  to  lay  the  foundation  for  the  whole  system  of  ancient  war- 
fare, including  the  military  systems  of  the  ancient  Asiatic  monarchies. 
The  war-chariots   formed  the  most  important  part  of  an  Egyptian 
army,  and  were  used  instead  of  cavalry.     These  chariots  were  mounted   Chariots. 


•j£  ANCIENT   EGYPT   AND   ETHIOPIA. 

on  two  wheels,  and  were  very  carefully  made.  They  were  hung  low, 
were  open  behind  to  enable  the  warrior  to  step  in  and  out  with  ease, 
and  had  no  seat.  They  were  drawn  by  two  horses,  and  usually  con- 
tained two  warriors,  one  to  manage  the  horses,  and  the  other  to  fight. 
The  war-chariots  of  different  nations  differed  from  each  other.  The 
harness  and  housings  of  the  horses  were  elegantly  decorated.  A 
quiver  and  bow-case,  tastefully  and  skillfully  decorated,  were  fixed  to 
the  chariot  on  the  outside.  The  Egyptian  national  weapon  was  the 
bow,  used  by  infantry  and  charioteers. 

Archery.  The  Egyptians  were  the  most  skillful  archers  of  antiquity.  Their 
bows  were  the  most  powerful,  and  their  arrows,  drawn  to  the  ear,  were 
the  best  aimed,  of  those  of  all  ancient  nations.  The  children  of  the 
military  caste  were  trained  to  the  practice  of  archery  from  the  earliest 
infancy.  The  heavy  arms  of  the  Egyptian  infantry  were  a  spear,  a 
dagger,  a  short  sword,  a  pole-ax,  a  battle-ax,  a  helmet  and  a  shield. 
Some  of  the  principal  officers  used  coats  of  mail  for  protection.  The 
light  troops  were  armed  with  swords,  battle-axes,  maces  and  clubs. 
Every  battalion  had  its  standard,  with  some  symbol  or  sacred  object 
represented  thereon,  generally  the  emblem  of  the  nome  or  tribe.  The 
soldiers  were  called  out  by  conscription,  drilled  to  the  sound  of  the 
trumpet,  and  taught  to  march  in  measured  time.  In  the  most  ancient 
period  cavalry  were  used  as  skirmishers,  videttes  and  expresses.  In 
attacking  walled  cities  battering-rams,  besieging-towers  and  scaling- 
ladders  were  used.  The  Egyptians,  like  other  ancient  nations,  treated 
their  captives  very  cruelly,  putting  them  to  death  or  reducing  them 
to  slavery. 

Treat-          The  Egyptians  readily  gave  quarter  when  an  enemy  submitted,  and 

^  Hen  thousands  of  prisoners  were  often  taken  in  their  military  expeditions. 
Foes.  If  they  ran  down  an  enemy's  ship  they  exerted  themselves  to  rescue 
the  men  on  board  from  the  waves,  and  took  them  to  their  own  vessels 
at  the  risk  of  their  own  lives.  Enemies  who  laid  down  their  weapons 
on  land  and  sued  for  mercy  were  usually  spared.  Their  arms  were 
bound  together  by  a  cord  passed  round  them  a  little  above  the  elbows, 
and  they  were  led  from  the  field  to  the  camp,  usually  in  long  strings, 
each  conducted  by  one  Egyptian.  Laggards  were  urged  forward  by 
fear  of  the  bastinado,  which  was  freely  applied  by  those  in  charge 
of  the  captives.  All  captives  were  considered  as  belonging  to  the 
king,  and  consequently  became  his  slaves,  being  employed  by  him  in 
forced  labors  during  the  rest  of  their  lives ;  but  sometimes  the  monarch 
rewarded  individual  captors  by  allowing  them  to  hold  their  own  pris- 

Mutila-     oners,  who  thus  passed  into  private  servitude. 

Slain  ^e  Egyptians,  in  order  to  ascertain  the  number  of  slain  among 

Foes.       an  enemy's  army  on  the  battle-field,  mutilated  them,  cutting  off  and 


EGYPTIAN    CIVILIZATION. 


73 


carrying  to  the  camp  the  right  hand,  the  tongue  or  some  other  portion 
of  the  body.  Heaps  of  each  of  these  are  shown  in  the  sculptures, 
which  the  royal  scribes  are  represented  as  counting  in  the  king's  pres- 
ence, before  registering  them.  Each  soldier  received  a  reward  upon 
showing  these  proofs  of  his  prowess. 

The  fertilizing  of  the  soil  by  the  annual  inundation  of  the  Nile, 
and  the  irrigation  of  the  country  by  means  of  numerous  canals,  con- 
tributed to  make  Egypt  the  great  granary  of  antiquity,  from  which 
other  nations  drew  their  supplies  in  times  of  famine.  The  naturally 
fertile  soil  and  the  spontaneous  growth  of  the  date-palm  furnished 
the  people  with  cheap  and  abundant  food,  and  agriculture  received 
much  attention. 

The  rapid  increase  and  density  of  the  Egyptian  population,  which, 
as  we  have  already  said,  was  about  seven  millions,  crowded  in  the  nar- 
row valley  of  the  Nile,  only  seven  miles  in  width,  was  due  to  the  abun- 
dance and  cheapness  of  food  and  the  readiness  with  which  it  could 
be  obtained.  This  fact  accounts  for  the  ease  with  which  great  public 
works  like  the  Pyramids,  that  were  useless,  could  be  built ;  as  the  mon- 
archs  were  thus  enabled  to  employ  the  labor  of  hundreds  of  thousands 
of  men,  who  were  not  required  by  necessity  to  labor  in  any  other 
way. 

The  non-interference  of  the  government  with  agriculture  was  an 
advantage.  The  grain  was  sowed  when  the  inundation  had  disap- 
peared. In  some  parts  of  Egypt  the  husbandman  only  scattered  the 
seed  upon  the  rich  Nile  deposit  and  caused  it  to  be  trodden  in  by 
sheep,  goats  or  pigs,  and  then  simply  awaited  the  harvest.  Plows, 
of  a  simple  construction,  and  hoes  were  used  in  preparing  the  ground 
in  other  portions  of  the  country.  The  plows  were  drawn  by  two 
oxen  or  two  cows,  yoked  to  it  by  the  shoulders  or  by  the  horns. 
Sometimes  a  single  plowman  guided  the  plow  by  holding  one  handle 
in  his  left  hand,  and  carrying  a  whip  in  his  right ;  but  generally  there 
were  two  plowmen,  one  holding  the  two  handles,  and  the  other  driving 
the  animals  with  the  whip.  In  light  and  loose  soils  the  hoe  was  used 
instead  of  the  plow.  The  hoes  and  plows  were  of  wood.  The  grain 
cultivated  was  wheat,  barley,  and  what  Herodotus  called  zea  or  olyra, 
probably  the  modern  doora.  The  wheat  and  barley  were  used  by  the 
rich,  and  the  doora  by  the  poor.  The  wheat  was  cut  with  a  toothed 
sickle,  a  little  below  the  ear,  and  put  in  baskets  or  bound  in  sheaves. 
The  filled  baskets  were  carried  in  by  men  or  donkeys  to  the  threshing- 
floor,  and  there  emptied  on  a  heap.  Sometimes  the  corn  was  conveyed 
from  the  harvest-field  to  the  granary  or  storehouse,  and  kept  there  a 
month.  Threshing  was  done  by  means  of  cattle,  which  were  driven 
round  and  round  the  threshing-floor,  while  a  laborer,  with  a  pitch-fork, 


Soil  and 
Agricul- 
ture. 


Farming 
Imple- 
ments. 


Cultiva- 
tion of 

Wheat. 


ANCIENT   EGYPT   AND   ETHIOPIA. 

threw  the  unthreshed  ears  into  their  path.  The  threshed  corn  was  at 
once  winnowed,  by  being  tossed  into  the  air  with  shovels,  in  a  place 
where  the  draught  of  air  would  blow  off  the  chaff  as  the  corn  fell. 
After  this  operation  the  cleansed  grain  was  carried  in  sacks  to  the 
granary,  and  there  stored  until  used. 
Barley  The  cultivation  of  barley  was  similar  to  that  of  wheat,  and  barley 
bread  was  in  great  demand.  Beer  was  also  brewed  from  the  grain. 
The  door  a  was  pulled  up  by  the  roots,  and  the  earth  was  then  shaken 
off  by  the  hand.  It  was  bound  in  sheaves  and  carried  to  a  storehouse ; 
and  after  it  was  dry  it  was  unbound  and  drawn  by  the  hand  through 
an  instrument,  armed  at  one  end  with  a  set  of  metal  spikes,  which 
separated  the  heads  from  the  straw.  These  were,  perhaps,  then  also 
threshed  and  winnowed.  Beans,  peas  and  lentils  were  also  raised. 
Artificial  grasses,  such  as  clover,  lupins  and  vetches,  were  grown  to 
furnish  provender  for  the  cattle  during  the  inundation.  Flax  was 
raised  in  great  abundance  for  the  linen  out  of  which  garments  were 
made.  Cotton,  indigo,  safflower,  sesame,  the  castor-oil  plant,  and  vari- 
ous medicinal  herbs  were  also  cultivated.  Esculent  vegetables,  such 
as  garlic,  onions,  leeks,  endive,  radishes,  melons,  cucumbers,  lettuces, 
etc.,  were  likewise  raised  in  considerable  quantities,  and  formed  a  large 
element  in  the  food  of  the  people.  The  raising  and  harvesting  of 
these  different  crops  employed  the  agricultural  class  for  the  greater 
part  of  the  year.  In  addition  to  the  yearly  overflow  of  the  Nile,  the 
country  was  fertilized  by  irrigation  in  the  form  of  a  system  of  canals, 
with  embankments,  sluices  and  flood-gates,  by  which  the  overflow  was 
retained  in  vast  reservoirs,  and  thus  utilized.  This  system  of  irriga- 
tion was  established  at  an  early  date,  and  was  maintained  with  the 
greatest  care  by  the  government.  In  the  district  of  the  Faioom,  a 
natural  depression  in  the  Libyan  desert,  eight  or  ten  miles  from  the 
Nile  valley,  a  canal  was  cut  from  the  Nile,  thus  filling  this  depression 
with  water,  and  forming  an  artificial  lake,  known  as  the  "Lake 
Moeris."  From  this  immense  reservoir,  canals  were  cut  in  all  direc- 
tions to  irrigate  the  surrounding  desert.  In  this  region,  by  this  sys- 
tem of  irrigation,  the  cultivation  of  the  olive  was  rendered  possible. 
In  the  edge  of  the  Nile  valley,  toward  the  desert  of  Hdger,  where  the 
soil  was  light  and  composed  of  sand  mixed  with  gravel,  the  vine  was 
cultivated  all  the  way  from  Thebes  to  Memphis.  It  was  also  grown 
in  the  Faioom,  and  in  the  western  part  of  the  Delta.  The  fruit,  after 
being  gathered,  was  carried  in  baskets  to  the  storehouse,  where  the 
juice  was  extracted  by  treading  or  squeezing  in  a  bag.  After  fer- 
mentation the  wine  was  stored  away  in  vases  or  amphorae  of  an  elegant 
shape,  closed  with  a  stopper  and  then  hermetically  sealed  with  moist 
clay,  pitch,  gypsum  or  other  substance. 


EGYPTIAN    CIVILIZATION. 


75 


In  the  large  estates  of  the  rich  land-owners  the  herdsmen  were  Overseers, 
under  the  supervision  of  overseers.  The  peasant  who  cultivated  the 
land  on  which  the  flocks  and  herds  fed  was  responsible  for  their  proper 
support  and  for  the  exact  account  of  the  amount  of  food  which  they 
consumed.  Some  persons  were  wholly  employed  in  taking  care  of  the 
sick  animals,  which  were  kept  at  home  in  the  farm-yard.  The  over- 
seer of  the  shepherds  attended,  at  stated  periods,  to  give  a  report 
to  the  scribes  connected  with  the  estate,  by  whom  it  was  submitted 
to  the  steward,  who  was  accountable  to  his  employer  for  this  and  all 
his  other  possessions.  The  paintings  represent  the  head  shepherd 
rendering  his  account,  and  behind  him  we  see  the  flocks  assigned  to 
his  charge,  consisting  of  the  sheep,  goats  and  wild  animals  belonging 
to  the  person  in  the  tomb.  In  one  painting  the  expressive  attitude 
of  this  man,  with  his  hand  at  his  mouth,  is  imagined  to  convey  the  idea 
of  his  effort  to  remember  the  numbers  which  he  is  giving,  from  mem- 
ory, to  the  scribes.  In  another  painting  the  numbers  are  written  over 
the  animals.  The  oxen  are  numbered  eight  hundred  and  thirty-four, 
the  cows  two  hundred  and  twenty,  the  goats  three  thousand  two  hun- 
dred and  thirty-four,  the  asses  seven  hundred  and  sixty,  and  the  sheep 
nine  hundred  and  seventy-four.  These  are  followed  by  a  man  carry- 
ing the  3^oung  lambs  in  baskets  slung  upon  a  pole.  The  steward,  in 
a  leaning  posture  upon  his  staff,  and  accompanied  by  his  dog,  stands 
on  one  side ;  while  the  scribes,  writing  out  their  statement,  occupy 
the  other  side.  Another  painting  shows  us  men  bringing  baskets  of 
eggs,  flocks  of  geese,  and  baskets  full  of  goslings.  An  Egyptian 
"Goose  Gibbie"  is  represented  as  making  obeisance  to  his  master.  In 
still  another  painting  we  see  persons  feeding  sick  oxen,  goats  and 
geese.  The  ancient  Egyptians  carried  the  art  of  curing  diseases  in 
all  kinds  of  animals  to  great  perfection ;  and  the  testimony  of  ancient 
writers  and  paintings  is  sustained  by  a  discovery  of  Cuvier,  who 
found  the  left  shoulder  of  a  mummied  ibis  fractured  and  reunited, 
thus  showing;  that  human  art  intervened  in  this  case. 

O 

The  ancient  Egyptians  of  every  class  delighted  in  field-sports,  and 
the  peasants  considered  it  a  duty,  no  less  than  amusement,  to  hunt  and 
kill  the  hyena  and  other  wild  animals  which  annoyed  them.  The 
paintings  show  us  numerous  hunting  scenes  and  various  devices  for 
catching  birds  and  beasts.  The  hyena  is  usually  represented  as 
caught  in  a  trap.  Wild  oxen  were  caught  by  a  noose  or  lasso,  in  very 
much  the  same  manner  as  the  South  Americans  catch  horses  and  cat- 
tle, though  the  Egyptians  are  not  represented  as  riding  on  horseback 
when  they  used  it.  The  introduction  of  a  bush  in  one  painting,  just 
behind  the  man  throwing  the  lasso,  would  seem  to  imply  that  the  hunts- 
man was  concealed.  Other  wild  animals  hunted  were  the  hippopota- 
1-b 


Hunting, 
Fishing 

and 
Fowling. 


ANCIENT   EGYPT   AND   ETHIOPIA. 


Paintings 

of  Farm 

Life. 


Beasts  of 
Burden. 


Memphis 

and 
Thebes. 


mus,  the  jackal,  the  fox,  the  crocodile,  the  porcupine,  the  gazelle,  the 
ibex,  the  hare,  the  antelope,  and  even  the  ostrich.  Wild  cattle  were 
also  hunted.  Lions,  upon  the  borders  of  Egypt,  were  hunted  by  a 
few  of  the  kings,  but  there  is  only  one  representation  of  a  royal  lion 
hunt.  Sometimes  lions  were  tamed,  and  were  used  in  the  chase  of 
other  animals,  according  to  a  single  painting.  One  king  is  repre- 
sented as  having  "hunted  a  hundred  and  twenty  elephants  on  account 
of  their  tusks."  Fishing  and  fowling  were  also  favorite  sports  among 
the  Egyptians.  Hounds  were  likewise  used  in  pursuing  game. 

All  the  departments  of  agriculture,  farming,  breeding  cattle,  etc., 
are  illustrated  in  the  paintings  with  wonderful  accuracy  and  detail. 
We  observe  oxen  lying  on  the  ground,  with  legs  pinioned,  while  herds- 
men are  branding  marks  upon  them  with  hot  irons,  and  other  men  are 
heating  irons  in  the  fire.  The  paintings  give  us  full  accounts  of  the 
king's  kine,  which  are  generally  copied  after  the  fattest  specimens. 
One  of  these  represents  the  Pharaoh  as  himself  a  tolerably  extensive 
grazier,  the  king's  ox  being  marked  eighty-six.  Another  illustrates 
a  regular  cattle-show;  another  the  actual  operation  of  the  veterinary 
art,  cattle  doctors  being  exhibited  as  performing  operations  upon  sick 
oxen,  bulls,  deer,  goats  and  geese.  The  hieroglyphic  denoting  a 
physician  is  the  fowl  whose  cry  is  "Quack!  quack!" 

Egyptian  beasts  of  burden  were  asses,  cows  and  oxen.  Horses  were 
used  for  riding,  for  drawing  curricles  and  chariots,  mainly  by  men 
of  the  upper  classes,  and  for  drawing  the  plow.  Multitudes  were 
required  for  the  war-chariots  and  for  the  cavalry  service.  A  brisk 
trade  in  horses  was  carried  on  with  Syria  and  Palestine,  where  they 
were  in  great  demand  and  commanded  high  prices.  The  horses  of 
ancient  Egypt  were  kept  constantly  in  stables,  fed  on  straw  and 
barley,  and  were  not  allowed  to  graze  in  the  fields.  The  larger  land- 
owners also  possessed  wild  animals,  such  as  wild  goats,  gazelles  and 
oryxes ;  and  also  wild  fowl,  such  as  the  stork,  the  vulpanser  and  others. 
Egyptian  farmers  also  bred  large  numbers  of  sheep,  goats  and  pigs. 

Egypt  has  been  an  object  of  interest  to  mankind  in  every  age,  as 
the  birth-place  of  civilization,  art  and  science.  In  this  narrow  strip 
of  country,  "the  Gift  of  the  Nile,"  only  seven  miles  wide  and  five 
hundred  and  twenty-six  miles  long,  were  seven  million  inhabitants. 
The  Nile  valley  is  studded  with  the  ruins  of  ancient  cities.  Memphis, 
the  chief  city  of  Middle  Egypt,  or  the  Heptanomis,  so  called  from 
its  seven  nomes,  was  situated  about  twelve  miles  south  of  the  apex  of 
the  Delta,  and  as  we  have  said,  was  founded  by  Menes,  the  first  Egyp- 
tian king.  In  the  vicinity  of  Memphis  are  the  most  splendid  of  the 
pyramids,  which  extend  for  seventy  miles  on  the  west  bank  of  the 
Nile,  and  among  which  are  the  famous  Pyramids  of  Ghizeh,  already 


EGYPTIAN   CIVILIZATION.  iyiy 

Described.  In  this  vicinity  is  also  the  Great  Sphinx,  or  woman-headed 
lion,  one  hundred  and  forty-six  feet  long  and  thirty-six  feet  wide 
across  the  shoulders.  Here  are  also  the  ruins  of  the  famous  Laby- 
rinth, and  miles  on  miles  of  rock-hewn  temples.  The  magnificent  and 
stately  Thebes,  the  hundred-gated  city  of  Upper  Egypt,  or  the  The- 
bai's,  is  said  to  have  extended  over  twenty-three  miles.  On  its  site  are 
the  villages  of  Karnak  and  Luxor,  where  the  ruins  of  magnificent  and 
spacious  temples,  splendid  palaces,  colossal  statues,  avenues  of  obe- 
lisks and  lines  of  sphinxes,  tombs  of  kings  hewn  in  the  solid  rock, 
subterranean  catacombs  and  the  gigantic  statue  of  Memnon,  still  bear 
witness  to  the  immense  size  and  splendor  of  this  great  and  celebrated 
city,  whose  ruins  extend  for  seven  miles  along  both  banks  of  the 
Nile. 

The   ancient   Egyptians   had   a   wonderful   building   instinct,    and    Architec- 
architecture  was  the  greatest  of  all  their  arts.     The  distinguishing  e* 

features  were  massiveness  and  grandeur,  in  which  they  have  never 
been  surpassed.  This  great  people  delighted  in  pyramids,  sphinxes, 
obelisks  and  stupendous  palaces  and  temples,  with  massive  columns  and 
spacious  halls  of  solemn  and  gloomy  grandeur,  in  which  our  largest 
cathedrals  could  stand,  adorned  with  elaborately-sculptured  colossal 
statues,  and  connected  with  which  were  avenues  of  sphinxes  and  lines 
of  obelisks.  Their  pyramids  are  the  oldest,  as  well  as  the  largest 
and  most  wonderful  of  human  works  yet  remaining,  and  the  beauty 
of  their  masonry,  Wilkinson  declares,  has  never  been  surpassed.  An 
obelisk  of  a  single  stone  now  standing  in  Egypt  weighs  three  hundred 
tons,  and  a  colossus  of  Rameses  the  Great  nearly  nine  hundred  tons; 
and  Herodotus  describes  a  monolithic  temple  weighing  five  thousand 
tons,  which  was  carried  hundreds  of  miles  on  sledges,  as  were  also  the 
huge  blocks  of  stone,  sometimes  weighing  sixteen  thousand  tons  each, 
with  which  the  pyramids  were  built.  In  one  instance  two  thousand 
men  were  employed  three  years  in  conveying  a  single  stone  from  the 
quarry  to  the  structure  in  which  it  was  to  be  placed.  There  is  a 
roof  of  a  doorway  at  Karnak  covered  with  sandstone  blocks  forty  feet 
long.  Sculpture  and  bas-reliefs  thirty-five  or  forty  centuries  old,  in 
which  the  granite  is  cut  with  exquisite  delicacy,  are  yet  to  be  seen 
throughout  this  famous  land.  The  pyramids  were  all  built  on  strictly 
scientific  and  mathematical  principles. 

The  obelisks,  so  called  on  account  of  their  peculiar  shape,  were  tall  Obelisks, 
and  slender  monoliths  erected  at  the  gateways  of  temples,  one  standing 
on  each  side.  From  the  quarries  of  Syene  they  were  floated  down  the 
Nile  on  rafts  during  an  annual  overflow.  They  were  formed  in  ac- 
cordance with  a  certain  rule  of  proportion,  and  were  from  twenty  to 
one  hundred  and  twenty-three  feet  high.  The  names  and  titles  of  the 


78  ANCIENT   EGYPT   AND    ETHIOPIA. 

kings  who  erected  them  were  recorded  in  hieroglyphic  carvings  on  the 
sides.  An  obelisk  at  Luxor  was  taken  to  Paris  in  1833  and  erected  in 
the  Place  de  la  Concorde.  Several  others  had  previously  been  re- 
moved to  Rome.  Two  famous  obelisks,  after  standing  for  eighteen 
centuries  at  the  gate  of  the  temple  of  the  sun  at  Heliopolis,  where 
they  had  been  erected  by  King  Thothmes  III.,  were  removed  to  Alex- 
andria by  the  Romans  just  after  their  conquest  of  Egypt,  in  the  time 
of  Augustus  Caesar.  These  were  known  at  Alexandria  as  Cleopatra's 
Needles,  and  one  was  transported  to  London  a  few  years  ago.  The 
other  was  shortly  after  transported  to  New  York,  and  is  now  one  of 
the  objects  of  interest  greeting  the  eye  of  the  beholder  in  Central 
Park. 

Science.  Egypt,  renowned  for  its  discoveries  in  art  and  science,  was  the 
ancient  world's  university,  where  Moses,  Lycurgus  and  Solon,  Pytha- 
goras and  Plato,  Herodotus  and  Diodorus — lawgivers,  philosophers 
and  historians — were  students.  The  ancient  Egyptians  had  made 
considerable  progress  in  the  sciences,  particularly  astronomy,  geom- 
etry, arithmetic,  chemistry,  medicine  and  anatomy.  Their  knowledge 
of  astronomy  is  proven  by  the  accuracy  with  which  they  calculated 
solar  and  lunar  eclipses;  by  their  mode  of  reckoning  time  and  their 
knowledge  of  the  length  of  the  year  as  being  three  hundred  and  sixty- 
five  days ;  by  their  knowledge  of  the  spherical  shape  of  the  earth ;  and 
by  their  ability  to  compute  latitude  and  longitude,  as  demonstrated 
by  the  fact  that  the  tomb  of  Cheops,  Suphis,  or  Khufu,  the  king  who 
built  the  largest  of  the  three  great  Pyramids  of  Ghizeh,  is  located 
exactly  on  the  30th  parallel  of  north  latitude. 

Arts.  The  ancient  Egyptians  had  attained  great  skill  in  many  of  the  finer 

mechanical  arts,  such  as  pottery,  the  manufacture  of  glass  and  porce- 
lain, dyeing  and  the  making  of  linen  and  cotton  goods.  They  like- 
wise excelled  in  the  polishing  and  engraving  of  precious  stones,  and 
in  metallurgy.  Mining  was  one  of  their  industries.  Their  walls  and 
ceilings  were  painted  in  beautiful  patterns,  which  moderns  yet  imitate ; 
and  in  the  production  of  useful  and  ornamental  articles  they  have  never 
been  surpassed,  either  in  ancient  or  modern  times. 

Language.  The  language  of  the  ancient  Egyptians  was  related  to  the  lan- 
guages of  the  Semitic  nations,  but  differed  from  them  in  many  par- 
ticulars. There  were  different  dialects  in  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt. 

Writing.  The  Egyptians  practiced  the  art  of  writing  far  more  extensively 
than  any  other  ancient  people.  The  pyramids  and  monuments,  even 
to  the  most  remote  antiquity,  bear  inscriptions,  and  it  was  the  custom 
to  mark  every  article  of  use  or  ornament.  There  were  three  kinds 
of  writings  in  use.  For  monumental  inscriptions  hieroglyphics  were 
used.  For  documents  the  writing  was  executed  on  leaves  of  the  papy- 


THE   ROSETTA  STONE 

[About  one-sixth  the  actual  size] 


EGYPTIAN    CIVILIZATION.  79 

rus  plant,  from  which  our  word  paper  is  derived.  The  third  kind  of 
writing  was  the  demotic,  that  of  the  common  people,  so  called  from 
demos,  the  people.  The  writing  was  executed  with  a  reed  pen.  The 
hieroglyphics  were  traced  in  black,  but  commenced  in  red,  and  the 
sculptured  hieroglyphs  were  also  embellished  with  colors.  The  hiero- 
glyphic signs  are  pictorial,  and  are  of  four  kinds — representative, 
figurative,  determinative  and  phonetic.  Much  of  this  ancient  litera- 
ture has  come  down  to  us  in  a  fragmentary  and  disconnected  form. 
Remnants  of  papyrus  manuscripts  of  the  most  ancient  Theban  dynas- 
ties— about  four  thousand  years  old — are  still  in  existence.  The  pro- 
fessional scribes  were  from  the  priestly  class. 

The  discovery  of  the  famous  Rosetta  Stone,  during  Bonaparte's  Rosetta 
Egyptian  campaign,  in  1798,  led  to  the  deciphering  of  the  hiero-  Stone, 
glyphic  inscriptions  on  the  monuments,  which  has  been  the  means  of 
throwing  a  flood  of  new  light  upon  the  history  of  ancient  Egypt. 
All  three  forms  of  hieroglyphic  writing  were  unknown  to  the  Greeks, 
to  whom  the  monumental  inscriptions  were  interpreted  by  the  Egyptian 
priests.  The  key  to  these  writings  was  lost,  thus  concealing  the  treas- 
ures of  Egyptian  learning  from  the  civilized  world  for  centuries. 
The  copies  of  the  three  kinds  of  inscriptions  on  the  Rosetta  Stone — 
the  hieroglyphic,  the  demotic  and  the  Greek — given  to  European 
scholars,  were  the  means  of  opening  this  long-sealed  library  on  stones 
and  papyri.  In  1815  Dr.  Young,  the  English  Egyptologist,  dis- 
covered the  key  to  the  texts,  and  the  distinguished  French  Egyptolo- 
gist, Champollion,  made  a  successful  application  of  the  newly-dis- 
covered key.  The  Rosetta  Stone  is  now  in  the  British  Museum. 

The  ancient  Egyptians  surpassed  all  other  nations  in  their  love  for  Record*, 
recording  all  human  actions.  They  preserved  in  writing,  on  papyrus, 
a  record  of  all  the  details  of  private  life  with  surprising  zeal,  method 
and  regularity.  Every  year,  month,  week  and  day  had  its  record  of 
transactions.  This  inclination  fully  accounts  for  Egypt  being  the 
monumental  land.  No  other  human  records — whether  of  Chaldaea,  In- 
dia or  China — go  as  far  back  into  remote  antiquity  as  do  those  of 
2gypt.  Bunsen  says:  "The  genuine  Egyptian  writing  is  fully  as 
old  as  Menes,  the  founder  of  the  Old  Empire,  perhaps  three  thousand 
years  before  Christ."  Lepsius  saw  the  hieroglyph  of  the  reed  and 
inkstand  on  the  monuments  of  the  Fourth  Dynasty.  Herodotus  re- 
marked: "No  Egyptian  omits  taking  accurate  note  of  extraordinary 
and  striking  events."  Everything  was  recorded.  Scribes  are  every- 
where seen  on  the  monuments,  taking  accounts  of  the  products  of  the 
farms,  going  into  the  most  minute  details,  even  so  far  as  to  giving 
account  of  every  single  egg  and  chicken.  Bunsen  further  says:  "In 
spite  of  the  ravages  of  time,  and  though  systematic  excavation  has 


80  ANCIENT    EGYPT   AND    ETHIOPIA. 

scarcely  yet  commenced,  we  possess  chronological  records  of  a  date 
prior  to  any  period  of  which  manuscripts  are  preserved,  or  the  art  of 
writing  existed  in  any  other  quarter." 

Their  It  is  owing  to  their  fondness  for  recording  everything,  both  in  pic- 

State  of  tures  an(j  Jn  three  kinds  of  writing ;  also  to  their  fondness  for  building 
tion.  and  excavating  temples  and  tombs  in  imperishable  granite ;  and  lastly, 
to  the  dryness  of  the  air  which  has  preserved  for  us  these  paintings, 
and  to  the  sand  which  has  buried  the  monuments,  thus  preventing 
their  destruction — it  is  owing  to  all  these  circumstances  that  we  have 
so  wonderfully  preserved,  for  forty-five  centuries,  the  account  of  the 
everyday  life,  thoughts  and  religious  belief  of  this  renowned  ancient 
people. 

High  Civ-  The  most  ancient  mural  paintings  reveal  a  state  of  the  arts  of 
ilization.  civilization  so  perfect  as  to  excite  the  wonder  of  archaeologists,  who 
therefore  know  how  few  new  things  there  are  under  the  sun.  We  find 
houses  with  doors,  windows  and  verandas,  likewise  barns  for  grain, 
vineyards,  gardens,  fruit  trees,  etc.  We  also  see  pictures  of  march- 
ing troops,  armed  with  spears  and  shields,  bows,  slings,  daggers,  axes, 
maces  and  the  boomerang.  We  also  notice  coats  of  mail,  standards, 
war-chariots,  and  the  assault  on  forts  by  means  of  scaling-ladders. 
Sepul-  The  ancient  Egyptian  tombs  likewise  exhibit  scenes  of  domestic  life 
Paintings  anc^  cust°ms  similar  to  those  of  our  own  times.  We  observe  monkeys 
trained  to  gather  fruit  from  the  trees  in  an  orchard,  houses  furnished 
with  a  great  variety  of  chairs,  tables,  ottomans,  carpets,  couches,  as 
elegant  and  elaborate  as  any  used  at  the  present  day.  There  are  like- 
wise seen  comic  pictures  of  parties,  where  ladies  and  gentlemen  are 
sometimes  represented  as  being  the  worse  for  wine;  of  dances,  where 
ballet-girls  in  short  dresses  perform  pirouettes  of  the  modern  kind; 
of  exercises  in  wrestling,  games  of  ball,  games  of  chance  like  chess 
or  checkers ;  of  throwing  knives  at  a  mark ;  of  the  modern  thimble-rig, 
wooden  dolls  for  children,  curiously-carved  wooden  boxes,  dice  and 
toy-balls.  We  have  likewise  presented  to  our  view  men  and  women 
playing  on  harps,  flutes,  pipes,  cymbals,  trumpets,  drums,  guitars  and 
tambourines.  We  find  glass  to  have  been  in  general  use  by  this  great 
people  nearly  four  thousand  years  ago,  as  early  as  the  reign  of  Usur- 
tasen  I.,  and  we  can  see  pictures  of  glass-blowing  and  glass  bottles 
as  far  back  as  the  Fourth  Dynasty.  The  most  skillful  Venetian  glass- 
workers  can  not  rival  some  of  the  old  Egyptian  glass-work ;  as  the 
Egyptians  could  combine  all  colors  in  one  cup,  place  gold  between  two 
surfaces  of  glass,  and  finish  in  glass  details  of  feathers,  etc.,  which 
can  not  be  distinguished  without  the  use  of  the  microscope.  This 
last  fact  demonstrates  that  they  must  have  understood  the  use  of  the 
magnifying-glass.  The  Egyptians  likewise  imitated  with  success  the 


EGYPTIAN   TOILET   ARTICLES,  VASES,  AMPHORA,  ETC. 


EGYPTIAN   CIVILIZATION.  81 

colors  of  precious  stones,  and  were  even  able  to  make  statues  thirteen 
feet  high,  closely  resembling  an  emerald.  They  made  mosaics  in  glass 
of  colors  of  wonderful  brilliancy.  They  were  able  to  cut  glass  in  the 
most  ancient  periods.  Chinese  bottles  have  also  been  found  in  pre- 
viously-unopened tombs  of  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty,  showing  that 
there  must  have  been  commercial  intercourse  as  far  back  as  that  period. 
The  Egyptians  could  spin  and  weave  and  color  cloth,  and  understood 
the  use  of  mordants,  as  in  modern  calico  printing.  Pliny  described 
this  art  as  practiced  in  Egypt. 

The  art  of  making  writing-paper  from  the  papyrus,  or  paper-  Arts  and 
plant,  is  as  ancient  as  the  Pyramids.  The  Egyptians  tanned  leather 
and  made  shoes ;  and  the  shoemakers  are  represented  as  working  on 
their  benches  precisely  as  do  our  own.  Their  carpenters  used  axes, 
saws,  chisels,  drills,  planes,  rulers,  plummets,  squares,  hammers,  nails, 
and  hones  for  sharpening.  They  likewise  knew  the  use  of  glue  in 
cabinet-making,  and  there  are  paintings  in  veneering,  in  which  a  piece 
of  thin,  dark  wood  is  fastened  by  glue  to  a  coarser  piece  of  light  wood. 
Their  boats  were  propelled  by  sails  on  yards  and  masts,  as  well  as 
by  oars.  They  used  the  blowpipe  in  making  gold  chains  and  other 
ornaments.  They  had  rings  of  gold  and  silver  for  money,  and 
weighed  it  in  carefully-constructed  scales.  Their  hieroglyphics  are 
carved  on  the  hardest  granite  so  delicately  and  accurately  as  to  indi- 
cate the  use  of  metallic  cutting  instruments  harder  than  our  best  steel. 
The  siphon  was  known  to  these  people  as  early  as  the  fifteenth  century 
before  Christ.  The  wig  was  worn  by  all  the  higher  classes,  who  con- 
stantly shaved  their  heads,  as  well  as  their  chins,  and  frequently  wore 
false  beards.  In  the  tombs  are  found  sandals,  shoes  and  low  boots, 
some  of  them  very  elegant.  Loose  robes,  ear-rings,  finger-rings, 
bracelets,  armlets,  anklets  and  gold  necklaces  were  worn  by  women. 
Vases  for  ointment,  mirrors,  combs,  needles,  etc.,  are  found  in  the 
tombs.  These  people  also  had  their  doctors  and  drugs.  The  preva- 
lence of  the  passport  system  is  also  shown  by  the  careful  descriptions 
of  the  person  contained  in  their  deeds,  in  precisely  the  same  style  as 
those  required  by  travelers  in  Europe.  The  description  of  Egyptian 
customs  and  manners  here  given  is  but  a  small  part  of  that  revealed 
to  us  in  painting  or  sculpture  in  the  tombs,  or,  upon  the  walls  of 
Thebes  or  Beni-Hassan. 

At  their  feasts,  which  were  numerous  among  the  rich,  the  host  and  Feasts. 
hostess  presided.  The  seats  were  single  or  double  chairs,  but  num- 
bers sat  on  the  ground.  The  servants  decked  the  guests  with  lotus 
flowers,  and  placed  meat,  cakes,  fruits  and  other  articles  of  food  on 
the  small  tables  in  front  of  them.  Hired  musicians  and  dancers 
entertained  the  company.  Their  games  were  something  like  our 
VOL.  l. — 6 


gg  ANCIENT  EGYPT   AND   ETHIOPIA. 

chess  or  checkers.  The  rich  rode  in  chariots,  or  in  heavy  car- 
riages drawn  by  oxen.  Women  received  more  respectful  treatment 
and  enjoyed  more  freedom  in  Egypt  than  in  any  of  the  Asiatic 
nations. 

Games.  Games  of  ball  were  played  by  females,  as  well  as  by  males,  and  one 
picture  shows  us  that  the  loser  was  obliged  to  allow  the  winner  to 
ride  on  her  back. 

Shops.  Egyptian  shops  furnished  many  curious  scenes.  Poulterers  sus- 
pended geese  and  other  fowls  from  a  pole  in  front  of  the  shop,  which 
also  supported  an  awning  to  shade  them  from  the  sun.  Many  of  the 
shops  resembled  our  stalls,  being  open  in  front,  with  the  goods  set  on 
the  shelves  or  hanging  from  the  inner  wall;  a  custom  still  prevailing 
in  the  East.  In  the  Egyptian  kitchens  were  likewise  exhibited  singu- 
lar scenes,  among  which  we  find  representations  of  a  cook  roasting  a 
goose.  He  holds  the  spit  with  one  hand,  and  blows  the  fire  with  a  fan 
in  the  other.  Another  person  is  seen  cutting  up  joints  of  meat  and 
putting  them  into  the  pot,  which  is  boiling  close  at  hand ;  while  other 
joints  of  meat  are  lying  on  the  table. 

Artists          Egyptian  artists  and  scribes  put  their  reed  pens  behind  their  ears, 

Scribes.  wnen  examining  the  effect  of  the  painting  or  listening  to  a  person 
on  business,  as  in  a  modern  counting  room.  The  paintings  in  some 
instances  represent  the  scribe  at  worl;  with  a  spare  pen  behind  his 
ear,  his  tablet  upon  his  knee,  and  his  writing-case  and  inkstand  on 
the  table  in  front  of  him. 

Dress.  The  dress  of  the  highest  class  consisted  of  the  shenti,  a  short  linen 
or  woolen  garment,  folded  or  fluted,  and  worn  around  the  loins,  being 
fastened  with  a  girdle.  A  fine  linen  robe,  reaching  to  the  feet,  was 
worn  over  this,  being  provided  with  long  sleeves  reaching  to  the  elbows. 
A  second  girdle  fastened  the  outer  robe  to  the  waist.  The  arms  and 
lower  parts  of  the  legs  were  left  bare.  Sandals  or  shoes  of  leather, 
or  of  palm-leaves  or  papyrus  stalks,  were  worn  by  the  rich  of  both 
sexes.  The  Egyptian  lords  wore  ornaments,  such  as  collars  of  beads 
or  gold  chains  round  their  necks,  armlets  and  bracelets  of  gold  round 
the  arms,  rings  upon  the  fingers,  and  anklets  round  the  ankles.  The 
Egyptian  women  wore  a  single  garment,  tied  at  the  neck  or  fastened 
by  straps  over  the  shoulders,  p.nd  reaching  from  the  neck  or  breast  to 
the  feet;  but  those  of  the  upper  class  wore  over  this  a  colored  sash, 
passed  twice  around  the  waist  and  tied  in  front,  and  over  this  second 
garment  a  large,  loose,  fine  linen  robe  with  full  open  sleeves,  reaching 
to  the  elbow.  They  wore  sandals  like  the  men,  and  the  same  orna- 
ments, with  the  addition  of  ear-rings  in  the  form  of  serpents  or  end- 
ing in  the  heads  of  animals  or  of  goddesses.  Elegant  head-dresses 
were  worn. 


EGYPTIAN    HAIR-DRESSING   AND   HEADWEAR 


EGYPTIAN    CIVILIZATION. 


83 


The  most  important  trades  among  the  Egyptians  were  those  of 
building,  stone-cutting,  weaving,  furniture-making,  chariot-making, 
glass-blowing,  pottery,  metallurgy,  boat-building  and  embalming. 
The  builders  worked  in  wood,  stone  and  brick.  The  mechanical  ex- 
cellence of  their  works  is  fully  attested  by  their  continuance  to  the 
present  day. 

The  paintings  frequently  allude  to  the  occupations  of  the  mason, 
the  stone-cutter  and  the  sculptor.  Workmen  are  represented  polish- 
ing and  painting  statues  of  men,  sphinxes  and  small  figures.  In  two 
cases  are  illustrated  large  granite  colossi,  surrounded  with  scaffolding, 
on  which  are  represented  men  employed  in  polishing  and  chiseling  the 
stone;  the  painter  coloring  the  hieroglyphics  which  the  sculptor  had 
engraved  on  the  back  of  the  statue. 

Stone-cutting  embraced  the  occupations  of  quarrying  and  shaping 
blocks  for  the  builder,  and  of  cutting,  polishing  and  engraving  gems. 
The  Egyptians  are  still  without  rivals  in  the  former  branch.  Blocks 
of  stone  were  usually  cut  with  a  single-handed  saw  in  the  hands  of  a 
single  sawyer.  Sometimes  the  pick  and  chisel  were  used  to  a  consid- 
erable extent,  after  which  wedges  of  dry  wood  were  inserted ;  and  these 
expanded  on  being  wetted,  and  split  off  the  required  block  from  the 
mass  of  stone  in  the  quarry.  The  tools  used  were  mostly  of  bronze. 
Blocks  of  stone,  obtained  from  the  quarries,  were  finally  smoothed  and 
prepared  for  use  by  means  of  the  chisel  and  mallet. 

The  Egyptians  carried  on  an  extensive  commerce  with  other  coun- 
tries ;  importing  gold,  ivory,  ebony,  skins  and  slaves  from  Ethiopia 
and  Central  Africa,  incense  from  Arabia,  and  spices  and  gems  from 
India;  and  exporting,  in  exchange  for  these  articles,  grain  and  cloth. 
As  the  Egyptians  had  not  attained  much  skill  in  the  art  of  ship-build- 
ing, their  trade  was  carried  on  principally  by  Greek  and  Phoenician 
merchants. 

Egyptian  sculpture  was  designed  to  illustrate  the  religious  faith  of 
the  people,  and  for  this  reason  was  characterized  by  grandeur  and 
sublimity  rather  than  beauty.  Their  peculiar  taste  was  the  outgrowth 
of  their  religious  ideas,  for  the  aim  was  to  inspire  awe  rather  than 
please  the  eye  with  graceful  and  elegant  forms.  This  checked  all 
progress  in  art,  for  all  inventive  genius  was  fettered  by  conventional 
rules  founded  on  religious  beliefs.  Colossal  statues,  uncouth  alle- 
gorical figures  and  strange  ideal  forms  of  animals  supplied  the  place 
of  nature  and  beauty  in  Egyptian  art.  Painting,  as  illustrated  by 
the  specimens  in  the  interiors  of  temples  and  sepulchers,  was  likewise 
intended  to  serve  the  cause  of  religion,  and  was  trammeled  by  the 
same  conventional  rules,  certain  colors  being  strictly  prescribed  in  rep- 
resenting the  bodies  and  draperies  of  the  gods,  thus  sacrificing  variety 


Trades 
and  Occu- 
pations 


Masons, 
Stone- 
Cutters, 
Sculptors. 


Stone- 
Cutting. 


Com- 
merce. 


Sculp- 
ture. 


ANCIENT   EGYPT   AND   ETHIOPIA. 


Statues, 

Reliefs, 

Intaglios. 


Great 
Sphinx. 


Animal 
Forms. 


of  form  to  an  ideal  monotony.  The  painting  was  often  executed  in 
brilliant  coloring,  but  the  drawing  lacked  accuracy,  exhibiting  no 
compliance  with  the  rules  of  perspective  or  the  plainest  laws  of  vision. 
The  pigments  used  were  characterized  by  durability  and  often  by 
brilliancy. 

Ancient  Egyptian  sculpture  embraces  statuary;  reliefs,  or  repre- 
sentations of  forms  on  a  flat  surface  by  means  of  a  certain  projection; 
and  intaglios,  or  representations  by  cutting  the  forms  into  stone  or 
marble,  thus  sinking  them  below  the  surface.  Completely  detached 
statues  are  rare  in  Egypt.  The  statues  were  cut  out  of  stone.  There 
are  grotesque  figures  of  Phthah  and  Bes,  which  produce  disgust  and 
aversion.  Egyptian  statuary  was  distinguished  for  massiveness  and 
strength.  The  statuettes,  in  bronze,  basalt  or  terra-cotta,  are  less  dig- 
nified than  the  statues,  but  possess  more  elegance  and  grace.  The 
Great  Sphinx,  near  the  Pyramids  of  Ghizeh,  is  a  striking  monument, 
and  impresses  the  beholder  with  its  air  of  impassive  dignity.  Other 
sphinxes  have  a  certain  calmness  and  grandeur.  There  are  also  stat- 
uettes of  bulls,  monkeys  and  dogs,  which  are  fairly  good. 

Animal  forms  are  excellent,  but  the  chief  defects  of  Egyptian 
drawings  are  improper  proportion  and  incorrect  perspective.  The 
bas-reliefs  have  the  same  defects  in  this  respect  as  their  statues  and 
statuettes ;  and  there  is  a  frequent  intrusion  of  hideous  forms,  as  seen 
in  the  three  huge  and  misshapen  figures,  so  frequently  seen  upon  the 
ceilings  of  temples,  and  which  are  supposed  to  represent  "the  heav- 
ens." Bes  in  all  his  forms  is  fearful  to  behold;  as  are  also  Taouris, 
Savak,  Cerberus,  Khem,  and  sometimes  even  Osiris.  The  forms  of  the 
gods  are  all  more  or  less  repulsive;  the  stiff  outlines,  the  close-fitting 
robes,  the  large  hands  and  feet,  the  frequent  animal  heads  and  im- 
mense head-dresses,  the  ugly  or  inexpressive  faces,  recall  the  mon- 
strosities of  the  religious  representations  of  Brahmanism  and  Bud- 
dhism. 

Drawings.  The  drawings,  mostly  of  a  serious  nature,  are  of  four  kinds — 1, 
religious,  where  worship,  especially  sacrifice,  is  offered  to  the  gods,  or 
where  the  gods  sustain  the  king,  or  where  the  soul  passes  through 
scenes  it  will  endure  after  death;  2,  processional,  where  the  monarch 
goes  in  state,  or  where  tribute  is  brought  to  him,  or  where  the  pomp 
of  a  funeral,  or  the  installation  of  an  official,  or  some  other  civil  cere- 
mony, forms  the  subject;  8,  war  scenes,  such  as  land  and  naval  bat- 
tles, sieges  of  forts,  marches  of  armies,  the  return  home  with  booty 
and  captives,  etc. ;  4,  scenes  of  ordinary  life,  as  exclusively  represented 
in  the  tombs,  where  the  houses  and  goods,  the  occupations,  the  hunting 
scenes,  the  entertainments,  and  the  amusements  of  the  deceased  are 
depicted.  These  tomb  scenes  are  the  most  numerous  and  the  most 


From  Sttrtofraph,  copyright  by  Underwood  &*  L'ndcr-uiood 


RUINS  OF  THE  GRANITE  TEMPLE   NEAR  THE  SPHINX,  WITH   THE 
GREAT   PYRAMID   OF   GIZEH 


EGYPTIAN   CIVILIZATION. 


85 


interesting;  and  here  the  Egyptians  are  sportive  and  amusing,  exhib- 
iting playfulness  and  humor,  and  even  approaching  caricature. 

In  painting  the  Egyptians  drew  figures  of  men  and  animals,  and  Painting, 
also  of  other  objects,  in  outline  on  a  white  background,  and  then  filled 
in  the  outline,  wholly  or  partially,  with  masses  of  uniform  hue,  prac- 
ticing no  shading  or  softening  of  the  tints.  All  the  exposed  parts  of 
a  man's  body  were  colored  with  a  uniform  red-brown;  all  the  exposed 
portions  of  a  woman's  body,  with  a  lighter  red  or  a  yellow.  Except 
in  the  case  of  foreigners,  the  hair  and  beard  were  pitch-black. 
Dresses  were  mostly  white,  with  their  folds  marked  by  lines  of  red  or 
brown,  and  were  sometimes  striped  or  otherwise  patterned,  generally 
red- or  blue.  Most  large  surfaces  were  more  or  less  patterned,  gener- 
ally with  small  patterns  of  various  colors,  including  much  of  white. 
The  stone  on  which  the  Egyptians  painted — whether  sandstone,  fos- 
siliferous  limestone,  or  granite — was  covered  with  a  coating  of  stucco, 
which  was  white  or  whitish  and  prevented  the  colors  from  being  lost 
by  sinking  into  the  background.  Besides  black,  white,  red,  blue  and 
yellow,  they  used  green,  brown  and  gray,  as  colors  in  their  paintings. 
The  black  is  a  bone-black.  The  white  is  prepared  from  pure  chalk 
with  a  light  trace  of  iron.  The  red  and  the  yellow  are  ochres,  the 
coloring  matter  being  iron  mixed  with  the  earthy  substance.  The 
blue  is  derived  from  the  oxide  of  copper  combined  with  pulverized 
glass.  The  green  is  the  same  preparation  combined  with  yellow  ochre. 
The  brown  is  a  mixture  of  blue-black  with  the  red.  The  colors  were 
mixed  with  water  and  with  a  moderate  amount  of  gum,  to  make  the 
mixture  adhesive  and  tenacious.  They  were  applied  to  a  stuccoed 
flat  surface,  or  to  figures  in  relief  or  intaglio. 

The  great  temple-palace  of  Rameses  III.  at  Medinet-Abu  fully  illus- 
trates the  combined  effects  of  painting  and  sculpture  in  Egypt.  On 
the  north-east  wall  of  this  ruined  structure  is  represented,  in  painting, 
the  king  on  a  throne,  inscribed  with  a  hawk-headed  figure  leading  a 
lion  and  sphinx.  Behind  the  king  are  the  winged  effigies  of  Truth 
and  Justice.  Twelve  royal  princes  bear  the  shrine,  and  high  officers 
of  state  wave  their  lobelia  before  their  august  sovereign,  while  priests 
carry  his  arms  and  insignia.  The  monarch's  sons  bear  the  footstool 
of  his  throne,  and  are  accompanied  by  scribes  and  great  warriors. 
There  is  likewise  seen  a  procession  of  scholars,  fan-bearers  and  sol- 
diers. A  great  scribe  delivers  a  proclamation  from  a  roll  of  papyrus, 
and  the  high-priest  burns  incense  before  the  shrine.  Birds  fly  in  every 
direction,  as  if  to  spread  Pharaoh's  fame  to  every  quarter  of  the  world. 
This  is  but  a  part  of  the  elaborate  sculpture,  the  effect  of  which  is 
heightened  by  the  painter's  art,  on  the  inside  walls  of  the  great  temple- 
palace.  The  temples  and  palaces  of  Thebes  exhibit  a  similar  degree 


Temple- 
Palace  of 
Rameses 
III. 


86 


ANCIENT    EGYPT   AND    ETHIOPIA. 


Embalm- 
ing and 
Sepul- 
ture. 


Tombs. 


Embalm- 
ing. 


of  form  and  color,  which  appear  almost  as  perfect  as  if  they  had  just 
come  from  the  artist's  hand. 

As  we  shall  observe,  the  belief  of  the  future  reunion  of  the  soul  and 
body  was  the  reason  taken  to  preserve  the  latter  from  decay,  as  exem- 
plified in  the  singular  custom  of  embalming  the  dead,  which  was  the 
universal  practice  among  this  celebrated  people,  and  also  in  the  great 
pains  taken  to  ornament  the  insides  of  the  rock-hewn  supulchers,  the 
belief  prevailing  that  the  dead  body  in  the  tomb  was  not  entirely 
unconscious. 

While  other  nations  embellished  the  temples  and  palaces  of  the  liv- 
ing, the  ancient  Egyptians  decorated  their  tombs,  the  receptacles  of 
the  dead,  with  lavish  splendor.  Many  of  these  highly-ornamented 
sepulchral  chambers  seem  only  accessible  through  long,  narrow  and 
intricate  passages.  The  entrances  to  others  seem  to  be  closed  with 
the  strictest  care,  and  hidden  with  reverential  sanctity.  A  necropolis, 
or  "city  of  the  dead,"  belonged  to  each  city  or  nome.  In  the  rock- 
hewn  sepulchers  of  Memphis  and  Thebes  were  treasured  up  all  the 
scenes  in  which  the  living  monarch  and  his  subjects  had  figured. 
Egypt  abounds  with  immense  tombs,  whose  walls,  like  those  of  the  tem- 
ples, are  adorned  with  the  most  wonderful  paintings,  executed  three 
and  four  thousand  years  ago.  In  these  paintings,  the  entire  country, 
with  all  its  natural  productions,  its  vegetables,  animals,  birds,  fishes, 
and  the  people  in  all  their  private  and  domestic  occupations,  are  delin- 
eated with  a  remarkable  fidelity  of  outline  and  an  extraordinary  rich- 
ness of  coloring. 

Religion  was  at  the  foundation  of  the  extraordinary  care  which 
the  Egyptians  bestowed  upon  their  dead.  The  whole  art  of  embalm- 
ing the  body — the  preparing,  the  bandaging,  the  anointing,  in  fact 
the  entire  process  of  forming  the  mummy — was  a  duty  of  the  priests. 
This  remarkable  custom  was  a  universal  national  usage  among  the 
ancient  Egyptians,  and  had  an  inseparable  connection  with  their  re- 
ligious dogmas  and  sentiment.  The  origin  of  this  singular  practice 
has  been  traced  to  the  local  circumstances  of  the  country.  In  Egypt 
the  customs  of  burning  and  burying  the  dead,  which  have  prevailed 
among  other  nations,  were  impracticable — the  first,  because  the  coun- 
try produces  little  timber,  and  its  fruit-trees,  such  as  the  date-palm 
and  others,  are  too  valuable  for  ordinary  consumption;  and  the  sec- 
ond, because  in  the  narrow  Nile  valley  all  the  land  available  for  agri- 
cultural purposes  was  required  for  the  sustenance  of  the  dense  popu- 
lation, and  also  because  the  annual  inundation  of  the  Nile  would  have 
washed  up  the  bodies  and  generated  pestilence.  The  rocky  mountain 
ranges  on  each  side  of  the  river  seemed  designed  by  nature  for  sepul- 
chers ;  but  the  multitudes  of  the  dead  could  not  with  safety  be  heaped 


EGYPTIAN   CIVILIZATION. 


87 


Metem- 


together  in  a  state  of  decomposition,  even  in  the  inmost  chambers 
of  their  rocks,  without  breeding  pestilence.  Ancient  Egypt  was  re- 
markably free  from  the  epidemic  plagues  which  now  desolate  the  Nile 
land,  on  account  of  the  universal  practice  of  embalming  the  dead, 
which  cut  off  one  chief  source  of  noxious  vapors.  This  peculiar  cus- 
tom was,  therefore,  a  wise  sanitary  regulation,  adopted  by  the  priestly 
lawgivers,  and  incorporated  with  the  civil  and  religious  institutions 
of  the  nation. 

The  Egyptian  lawgivers,  having  recognized  this  provision  as  essen- 
tial  to  the  public  health,  secured  its  universal  and  permanent  practice  ^ 
by  associating  it  with  the  doctrines  of  the  soul's  immortality  and  the 
metempsychosis,  or  transmigration  of  the  soul.  It  was  believed  that 
every  spirit,  upon  leaving  the  body,  must  pass  through  a  predestined 
cycle  of  three  thousand  years,  entering  successively  into  the  bodies 
of  various  animals,  until  it  returned  to  the  human  body  from  which 
it  had  departed.  Whenever  the  body  which  it  had  last  left  became 
subject  to  corruption  the  course  of  its  migrations  was  suspended;  the 
end  of  its  long  journey  and  its  ardently-wished-for  return  to  more 
exalted  states  of  existence  was  delayed.  For  this  reason  the  utmost 
care  was  taken  to  preserve  the  bodies  of  human  beings  and  animals, 
and  secure  them  forever  from  decomposition  and  putrefaction.  Thus 
this  usage  was  enforced  by  stringent  and  sacred  laws,  and  certain 
orders  of  the  priesthood  were  expressly  empowered  with  the  duty  of 
carrying  it  into  execution.  Embalming  was  performed  with  solemn 
religious  rites.  Herodotus  tells  us  that  when  a  body  was  found  seized 
by  a  crocodile,  or  drowned  in  the  Nile,  the  city  upon  whose  territory 
the  body  was  cast  was  obliged  to  take  it  in  charge  and  to  cause  it  to 
be  embalmed  and  interred  in  a  sepulcher. 

The  tombs  of  the  wealthy  consisted  of  one  or  more  chambers,  orna-  Structure 
mented  with  paintings  and  sculpture,  the  place  and  size  of  which  "Vati^0" 
depended  on  the  expense  which  the  family  of  the  deceased  incurred, 
or  on  the  wishes  of  the  persons  who  purchased  them  during  their  life- 
time. These  sepulchers  were  owned  by  the  priests  ;  and  as  a  sufficient 
number  were  always  held  in  readiness,  the  purchase  was  made  at  the 
shortest  possible  notice,  even  the  sculptures  and  inscriptions  being  so 
far  complete  as  to  require  only  the  insertion  of  the  name  of  the  de- 
ceased, and  a  few  statements  concerning  his  family  and  profession. 
The  numerous  subjects  illustrating  agricultural  life,  the  trades  and 
occupations  of  the  people,  their  diversions,  etc.,  were  already  intro- 
duced. These  were  the  same  in  all  the  tombs,  differing  only  in  their 
details  and  the  manner  of  their  execution,  and  were  probably  designed 
as  a  brief  epitome  of  human  life,  being  adapted  equally  to  every  future 
occupant.  In  some  cases  all  the  paintings  of  the  tomb  were  com- 


of  the 


88 


ANCIENT    EGYPT   AND    ETHIOPIA. 


Family 
Affection 
Illus- 
trated. 


Apart- 
ments of 

the 
Tombs. 


pleted,  and  even  the  small  figures  representing  the  tenant  were  intro- 
duced, only  those  of  larger  size  being  left  unsculptured,  because  they 
required  more  accuracy  in  the  features  to  give  a  correct  portrait.  In 
some  instances  even  the  large  figures  were  finished  before  the  tomb  was 
sold,  only  the  hieroglyphic  legends  containing  the  names  of  the  tenant 
and  his  wife  remaining  to  be  inserted.  The  priests  often  sold  old 
mummy-cases  and  tombs  belonging  to  other  persons,  altering  the 
hieroglyphics  and  giving  the  name  of  the  new  tenant.  This  was 
especially  the  case  when  the  purchaser  was  satisfied,  from  motives  of 
economy,  with  a  second-hand  tenement  for  the  remains  of  his  departed 
friend. 

The  tomb  was  invariably  prepared  as  a  resting-place  for  the  bodies 
of  a  husband  and  his  wife.  Whichever  died  first  was  interred  in  the 
sepulcher,  or  was  kept  embalmed  in  the  house  until  the  death  of  the 
other.  The  manner  in  which  husband  and  wife  are  always  repre- 
sented, with  their  arms  around  each  other's  waist  or  neck,  illustrates 
the  affectionate  disposition  of  the  ancient  Egyptians.  The  presence 
of  the  different  relatives,  who  are  introduced  in  the  performance  of 
some  tender  office  to  the  deceased  friend,  shows  the  attachment  of  a 
family  to  its  departed  relatives. 

Besides  the  upper  rooms  of  the  Egyptian  tombs,  which  were  orna- 
mented with  the  paintings  already  described,  there  were  pits,  from 
twenty  to  seventy  feet  deep,  at  the  bottom  and  sides  of  which  were 
recesses,  like  small  chambers,  for  the  reception  of  the  coffins.  The 
pit  was  closed  with  masonry  after  the  interment  of  the  body,  and  was, 
in  some  cases,  reopened  to  receive  the  other  members  of  the  family. 
The  upper  apartments  were  profusely  ornamented  with  painted  sculp- 
tures, thus  bearing  the  character  of  a  monument  in  honor  of  the  de- 
ceased, rather  than  his  sepulcher.  These  apartments  served  for  the 
reception  of  the  friends  of  the  deceased,  who  often  met  there,  and 
accompanied  the  priests  when  performing  the  services  for  the  dead. 
Tombs  were  built  of  brick  or  stone,  or  cut  in  the  solid  rock,  accord- 
ing to  the  position  of  the  necropolis.  The  rock-hewn  tombs  were 
preferred  wherever  the  mountains  were  near  enough  to  the  Nile,  and 
these  were  usually  the  most  elegant  in  design  and  variety  of  sculpture. 
The  sepulchers  of  the  poorer  classes  had  no  upper  chamber.  The 
coffins  of  these  were  laid  in  pits  in  the  plain,  or  in  recesses  at  the  side 
of  a  rock.  Mummies  of  the  lower  orders  were  interred  together  in  a 
common  repository,  and  the  remains  of  those  whose  relatives  were  too 
poor  to  defray  the  expenses  of  a  funeral,  after  being  cleansed  and 
kept  in  an  alkaline  solution  for  seventy  days,  were  wrapped  up  in 
coarse  cloth,  in  mats  or  in  a  bundle  of  palm  sticks,  and  laid  in  the 
earth. 


EGYPTIAN    CIVILIZATION. 

We  have  the  following  account  of  the  funeral  of  Nophri-Othph,  a  Funeral 
priest  of  Amun,  at  Thebes,  from  the  walls  of  his  tomb.  The  scene 
of  the  funeral  was  on  the  lake,  and  on  the  way  from  the  lake  to  the 
sepulcher.  At  the  head  of  the  procession  was  a  large  boat  conveying 
the  bearers  of  flowers,  cakes  and  many  things  relating  to  the  offer- 
ings, tables,  chairs  and  other  articles  of  furniture,  as  well  as  the  friends 
of  the  deceased,  these  being  conspicuous  by  their  dresses  and  their 
long  walking-sticks,  the  distinguishing  mark  of  Egyptian  gentlemen. 
Next  came  a  small  skiff,  carrying  baskets  of  cakes  and  fruit,  with  a 
supply  of  green  palm-branches,  which  it  was  the  custom  to  strew  in 
the  way  as  the  body  was  being  conveyed  to  the  tomb ;  the  smoothness 
of  the  palm-leaves  and  stalks  making  it  easy  for  the  sled  to  glide 
over  them.  The  love  of  caricature,  so  general  among  the  Egyptians, 
even  in  so  serious  a  matter  as  a  funeral,  is  exemplified  in  this  portion 
of  the  scene.  A  large  boat  having  run  aground  and  being  pushed  off 
the  bank,  struck  a  smaller  one  with  its  rudder,  and  overturned  a  large 
table,  loaded  with  cakes  and  other  things,  upon  the  heads  of  the  rowers 
seated  below,  notwithstanding  all  the  exertions  of  a  man  in  the  prow, 
and  the  vehement  cries  of  the  frightened  helmsman,  whose  alarm  was 
uncontrollable. 

In  another  boat  were  men  carrying  bunches  of  flowers  and  boxes  Scenes  at 
supported  by  yokes  on  their  shoulders.  Then  followed  two  other  p-un^ai 
boats,  one  conveying  the  male  mourners,  and  the  other  the  female 
mourners,  standing  on  the  roof  of  the  cabin,  beating  themselves,  utter- 
ing cries  and  making  other  demonstrations  of  grief.  At  last  came 
the  consecrated  boat,  carrying  the  hearse,  around  which  were  the  chief 
mourners  and  the  female  relatives  of  the  deceased.  Upon  arriving 
at  the  opposite  shore  of  the  lake,  the  procession  marched  to  the  cata- 
combs. On  their  way,  several  women  of  the  vicinity,  carrying  their 
children  in  shawls,  suspended  from  the  side  or  back,  joined  in  the 
lamentations  of  the  funeral  train.  The  mummy  was  set  in  a  standing 
position  in  the  chamber  of  the  tomb;  and  the  sister,  wife  or  nearest 
relative,  embracing  it,  began  a  funeral  dirge,  calling  upon  the  de- 
ceased with  every  expression  of  affection,  extolling  his  virtues  and 
bewailing  her  own  great  loss.  The  high-priest  presented  a  sacrifice 
of  incense  and  libation,  with  offerings  of  cakes  and  other  usual  gifts 
for  the  dead;  and  the  male  and  female  mourners  continued  the  wail- 
ing, throwing  dust  upon  their  heads,  and  making  other  demonstra- 
tions of  grief. 

Another  painting  represents  the  judgment  of  a  wicked  soul,  which  Judgment 
is  condemned  to  return  to  earth  in  the  form  of  a  pig,  having  been     -^icked 
weighed  in  the  scales  before  Osiris  and  found  wanting.     It  is  put  in      Soul, 
a  boat,  and,  attended  by  two  monkeys,  is  expelled  from  heaven,  all 


ANCIENT   EGYPT   AND   ETHIOPIA. 


Period  of 
Mourning 
and  Em- 
balming. 


Em- 
balmers. 


Expensive 
Style  of 

Em- 
balming. 


intercourse  with  which  is  symbolically  cut  off  by  a  man  hewing  away 
the  ground  behind  it  with  an  axe. 

During  the  whole  period  of  seventy-two  days  of  mourning  for  the 
dead,  the  process  of  embalming  the  body  was  performed.  This  em- 
balming was  performed  by  the  physicians,  who,  as  we  have  observed, 
were  of  the  priestly  order.  Vast  numbers  of  sacred  animals — bulls, 
apes,  dogs,  cats,  sheep,  etc. — were  likewise  embalmed.  It  is  said  that 
more  than  four  hundred  million  mummies  of  human  beings  were  made 
in  Egypt.  In  recent  years  many  of  these  mummies  have  been  brought 
from  the  land  of  the  Pharaohs  to  our  musuems.  Tombs  have  been 
opened  revealing  thousands  of  them  in  rows  one  upon  another,  without 
coffins.  Shiploads  of  them  have  been  transported  to  England,  and 
ground  up  for  fertilizers  for  the  soil. 

The  embalmers  of  dead  bodies  constituted  a  numerous  class  among 
the  ancient  Egyptians,  and  must  have  carried  on  a  prosperous  trade, 
if  the  prices  mentioned  by  Diodorus  were  actually  those  usually  ex- 
acted. According  to  the  Sicilian  historian,  the  most  improved  method 
of  preparing  a  corpse  for  interment  cost  a  sum  which,  in  our  money, 
would  amount  to  about  a  thousand  dollars.  A  secondary  and  much 
inferior  method  required  an  expenditure  amounting  to  about  four  hun- 
dred dollars.  The  lowest  and  poorest  classes  had  a  third  method,  the 
price  of  which  was  comparatively  moderate;  but  the  vast  numbers  of 
this  class  must  have  made  the  profits  to  the  embalmers  considerable. 
It  has  been  estimated  that  between  B.  C.  2000  and  A.  D.  700,  when 
embalming  ceased,  there  may  have  been  interred  in  Egypt  four  hun- 
dred and  twenty  million  mummied  corpses,  averaging  one  hundred  and 
fifty-five  thousand  yearly.  If  five-sixths  of  these,  or  one  hundred  and 
thirty  thousand,  belonged  to  the  lower  classes,  while  two-fifteenths,  or 
twenty  thousand,  may  have  been  furnished  by  the  middle  classes,  and 
one-thirtieth,  or  five  thousand,  by  the  wealthy  classes,  and  if  the  poor 
man  paid  one-twentieth  of  the  price  paid  by  those  of  the  upper  middle 
class,  the  annual  amount  received  by  the  embalmers  would  have  ex- 
ceeded fifteen  million  dollars  of  our  money. 

The  process  of  embalming  was  very  ancient  in  Egypt,  and  by  the 
time  of  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty  the  art  had  reached  a  remarkable 
degree  of  perfection.  In  the  most  expensive  system,  the  brain  was 
extracted  with  great  skill  by  a  curved,  bronze  implement  through  the 
nostrils,  after  which  the  skull  was  washed  out  with  certain  medica- 
ments. The  nostrils  were  plugged  up,  the  eyes  were  removed  and  their 
places  supplied  with  artificial  ones  of  ivory  or  obsidian,  and  the  hair 
was  likewise  sometimes  removed  and  placed  in  a  separate  packet,  cov- 
ered with  linen  and  bitumen.  An  opening  was  cut  in  the  right  side 
with  a  flint  knife,  through  which  the  entire  intestines  were  removed 


EGYPTIAN    CIVILIZATION.  91 

by  the  hand  and  deposited  in  sepulchral  urns.  The  cavity  was  then 
cleansed  by  an  injection  of  palm-wine,  and  sometimes  by  a  subsequent 
infusion  of  pounded  aromatics ;  after  which  it  was  filled  with  bruised 
myrrh,  cassia,  cinnamon  and  other  spices.  The  whole  body  was  then 
immersed  in  natron  for  seventy  days.  The  finger-nails  were  kept  in 
place  with  thread,  or  by  means  of  silver  gloves  or  stalls  placed  over 
the  fingers.  A  tin  plate,  inscribed  with  the  symbolic  eye,  was  laid 
over  the  incision  in  the  right  side.  The  arms  were  arranged  sym- 
metrically along  the  sides,  or  on  the  breast  or  groins.  The  body  was 
then  bandaged.  Linen  bandages  were  always  used,  and  were  gener- 
ally three  or  four  inches  wide  and  several  yards  long.  The  coarser 
linen  was  nearest  the  body,  the  finer  towards  the  outside.  In  some 
instances  the  bandages  in  which  a  single  corpse  was  swathed  were  over 
seven  hundred,  or,  according  to  Pettigrew,  over  a  thousand  yards 
long.  The  bandages  were  joined  together  and  kept  in  place  with 
gum.  After  the  bandaging,  an  outer  linen  shroud,  dyed  red  with 
the  carthamus  tinctorius,  and  ornamented  with  a  network  of  porcelain 
beads,  was  put  over  the  entire  body ;  or  the  bandaged  body  was  cov- 
ered by  a  "  cartonnage,"  composed  of  twenty-four  layers  of  linen 
tightly  pressed  and  glued  together,  thus  forming  a  kind  of  pasteboard 
envelope,  which  was  then  thinly  coated  with  stucco,  and  painted  in 
bright  colors  with  hieroglyphics  and  figures  of  deities.  The  body  was 
then  placed  within  a  wooden  coffin  shaped  similarly,  and  in  most  in- 
stances similarly  ornamented;  and  this  coffin  was  often  enclosed  within 
another,  or  within  several,  each  just  capable  of  holding  the  preceding 
one.  In  the  funerals  of  the  wealthy  the  coffined  body  was  placed 
within  a  stone  chest,  or  sarcophagus,  which  might  be  of  granite,  ala- 
baster, basalt,  breccia  or  other  good  material,  and  was  either  rectangu- 
lar or  in  the  form  of  the  mummied  body.  Some  sarcophagi  were 
plain,  but  many  were  adorned  with  sculptures  in  relief  or  intaglio, 
embracing  mainly  scenes  and  passages  from  the  most  sacred  of  Egyp- 
tian writings,  the  "Ritual  of  the  Dead." 

When  the  family  or  relatives  were  unable  or  indisposed  to  incur  the    Moderate 
large  expense  required  by  this  costly  mode  of  embalming,  a  cheaper      stvle- 
method  was  adopted.     The  viscera,  instead  of  being  deposited  with 
spices  in  separate  urns,  could  be  returned  into  the  body,  accompanied 
by  wax  images  of  the  four  genii.     The  abdominal  cavity  could  be 
only  cleansed  with  cedar  oil,  and  not  filled  with  spices.     The  silver 
finger-stalls  and  artificial  eyes  could  be  dispensed  with.     The  bandages 
could  be  reduced  in  number  and  made  of  coarser  linen.     The  ornamen- 
tation could  be  simpler.     A  single  wooden  coffin  would  be  sufficient, 
and  the  sarcophagus  might  be  done  without.     Thus  the  expense  of 
funerals  could  be  reduced  within  moderate  limits. 
1—9 


ANCIENT   EGYPT   AND    ETHIOPIA. 


Cheap 
Style. 


A  still  cheaper  mode  was  necessary  for  the  poorer  classes.  Some- 
times the  bodies  of  the  poor  were  submerged  in  mineral  pitch.  Often 
they  were  only  dried  and  salted.  Bodies  prepared  in  this  manner  are 
in  some  cases  swathed  in  bandages,  but  are  frequently  only  wrapped 
in  coarse  cloths  or  rags.  These  bodies  are  not  enclosed  in  coffins,  and 
have  been  only  buried  in  the  ground,  some  singly,  others  in  layers, 
one  above  the  other.  The  expense  of  these  modes  of  embalming  was 
so  trifling  as  to  be  within  the  reach  of  the  poorest. 


Religious 

Character 

of  the 

Ancient 

Egyptians. 


Religious 
Univer- 
sality- 


SECTION   VI.— EGYPTIAN  RELIGION   AND   MYTHOLOGY. 

CONCERNING  the  Egyptians,  Herodotus  says:  "They  are  of  all  men 
the  most  excessively  attentive  to  the  worship  of  the  gods."  Much  of 
the  theology,  mythology  and  ceremonies  of  the  Hebrews  and  Greeks 
had  their  origin  in  Egypt.  Herodotus  further  says:  "The  names  of 
almost  all  the  gods  came  from  Egypt  to  Greece."  He  also  states 
that  the  Greek  oracles,  especially  that  of  Dodona,  were  brought  from 
Egypt,  and  that  the  Egyptians  first  introduced  public  festivals,  pro- 
cessions and  solemn  supplications,  which  the  Greeks  learned  from  them. 
He  goes  on  to  say:  "The  Egyptians  are  beyond  measure  scrupulous 
in  matters  of  religion."  They  invented  the  calendar  and  connected 
astrology  with  it.  Says  Herodotus:  "Each  month  and  day  is  as- 
signed to  some  particular  god,  and  each  person's  birthday  determines 
his  fate."  He  likewise  says:  "The  Egyptians  were  also  the  first  to 
say  that  the  soul  of  man  is  immortal  and  that  it  transmigrates  through 
every  variety  of  animal."  The  Greek  Mysteries  of  Eleusis  were  taken 
from  those  of  Isis,  and  the  story  of  the  wanderings  of  Ceres  in  pursuit 
of  Proserpine  was  borrowed  from  that  of  Isis  in  search  of  Osiris. 
Modern  writers  agree  with  Herodotus.  Wilkinson  says :  "  The  Egyp- 
tians were  unquestionably  the  most  pious  nation  of  all  antiquity.  The 
oldest  monuments  show  their  belief  in  a  future  life.  And  Osiris,  the 
Judge,  is  mentioned  in  tombs  two  thousand  years  before  Christ." 
Bunsen  says:  "It  has  at  last  been  ascertained  that  all  the  great  gods 
of  Egypt  are  on  the  oldest  monuments."  He  goes  on  to  say:  "It  is 
a  great  and  astonishing  fact,  established  beyond  possibility  of  doubt, 
that  the  empire  of  Menes,  on  its  first  appearance  in  history,  possessed 
an  established  mythology,  that  is,  a  series  of  gods.  Before  the  empire 
of  Menes  the  separate  Egyptian  states  had  their  temple  worship  regu- 
larly organized." 

M.  Maury,  the  French  Egyptologist,  says  that  everything  among 
the  Egyptians  took  the  stamp  of  religion.  Their  writing  was  so  full 
of  sacred  symbols  as  to  render  it  almost  useless  for  any  other  purpose. 


EGYPTIAN   RELIGION   AND   MYTHOLOGY.  93 

Literature,  science  and  art  were  branches  of  theology  and  worship. 
The  most  common  labors  of  daily  life  were  constantly  interrupted  by 
some  reference  to  priestly  regulation.  The  future  fate  of  every 
Egyptian  was  perpetually  before  him,  so  that  he  only  lived  to  worship 
the  gods.  When  the  sun  set,  it  seemed  to  die  ;  when  it  arose,  it  seemed 
a  symbol  of  the  resurrection.  Religion  penetrated  so  deeply  into  the 
people's  habits  that  it  became  an  instinct.  It  was  of  all  polytheisms 
the  last  to  give  way  to  Christianity,  retaining  its  votaries  as  late  as 
the  sixth  century  of  the  Christian  era. 

The  ancient  Egyptian  religion  was  a  perplexing  mixture  of  mono-       Corn- 
theism  and  polytheism,  of  lofty  and  noble  conceptions  and  of  degrad-    p  e<  a^r- 
ing  superstitions. 

The  sacred  books  of  the  ancient  Egyptians  contained  the  religion     Priestly 
of  the  priests,  who  were  monotheists  and  considered  it  impious  to  rep-  ( 


resent  the  Supreme  Being  by  images  and  idols  ;  but  they  made  him 
known  to  the  masses  by  personifying  his  various  attributes  and  mani- 
festations, as  Phthah  the  Creator,  Amun  the  Revealer,  and  Osiris  the 
Benefactor  and  Judge,  and  so  on  through  an  innumerable  list  of  pri- 
mary, secondary  and  tertiary  characters,  which,  to  the  untutored 
masses,  became  so  many  separate  deities,  thus  accounting  for  the  poly- 
theistic faith  of  the  lower  classes.  Some  portion  of  the  divine  life 
was  believed  to  pervade  plants  and  animals,  which  were  consequently 
cherished  and  worshiped  by  the  ignorant  ;  for  what  to  the  wise  and 
learned  were  merely  symbols  became  to  the  people  distinct  objects  of 
adoration  ;  and  the  Egyptian  priests,  like  other  ancient  philosophers, 
disdained  to  enlighten  the  people,  whom  they  despised  and  deemed  in- 
capable of  comprehending  their  grand  conceptions,  and  whom  they 
desired  to  hold  in  subservience  to  their  own  and  the  kingly  authority. 

Thus  there  were  two  kinds  of  Egyptian  theology  —  esoteric,  or  an       Two 
interior  theology,  for  the  initiated,  and  exoteric,  or  an  exterior  theol-  Theoioev 
ogy,  for  the  uninitiated.     The  interior  hidden  theology  for  the  priests 
and  the  wise  related  to  the  unity  and  spirituality  of  the  Deity.     The 
exterior  theology  for  the  masses  consisted  of  mythological  accounts  of 
Osiris  and  Isis,  the  judgment  of  the  dead,  the  metempsychosis,  or 
transmigration  of  the  soul,  and  everything  pertaining  to  the  cere- 
monial worship  of  the  gods. 

Herodotus  tells  us  that  the  Egyptian  masses  believed  in  three  orders  Three 
of  gods,  and  Bunsen  and  Wilkinson  thought  that  they  had  succeeded 
in  tracing  them  from  the  monuments.  Thus  there  were  eight  gods  of 
the  first  order,  twelve  gods  of  the  second  order,  and  seven  gods  of  the 
third  order.  The  gods  of  the  first  order  were  of  a  higher  and  more 
spiritual  class  ;  those  of  the  second  order  were  a  transition  from  the 
first  order  to  the  third  —  children  of  the  first  and  parents  of  the  third. 


ANCIENT   EGYPT   AND    ETHIOPIA. 


Third 
Order. 


First 
Order. 


Ammon, 
or  Amun. 


Kneph. 


The  first  order  of  gods  was  for  the  priesthood,  and  taught  them  the 
unity,  spirituality  and  creative  power  of  the  One  True  and  Indivisible 
Supreme  Being. 

The  gods  of  the  third  order  were  for  the  masses  of  the  people,  and 
were  the  personal  agents  which  represented  the  forms  and  forces  of 
external  nature,  which  was  believed  by  the  ignorant  masses  to  work 
through  this  third  series  of  gods,  the  most  popular  of  which  were  Osiris 
and  Isis.  The  gods  of  the  second  or  intermediate  order  were  neither 
so  abstract  as  those  of  the  first  order,  nor  so  concrete  as  those  of  the 
third  order — not  representing  either  the  spiritual  characteristics  of 
the  gods  of  the  first  class,  or  the  natural  qualities  and  forces  of  those 
of  the  third  class,  but  rather  the  powers  and  faculties  of  human  beings. 
For  this  reason  most  of  the  deities  of  this  second  class  were  adopted 
by  the  Greeks,  whose  religious  system  was  essentially  founded  on  hu- 
man nature,  and  whose  gods  and  goddesses  were  mainly  the  imaginary 
representations  of  human  characteristics. 

The  eight  gods  of  the  first  order  were  believed  to  constitute  a  pro- 
cess of  divine  development,  and  were  supposed  to  exercise  the  power 
of  revealing  themselves.  These  eight  divinities,  according  to  Bunsen, 
Avere  arranged  in  the  following  order:  1.  Amn,  or  Ammon;  2.  Khem, 
or  Chemmis ;  3.  Mut,  the  Mother  Goddess ;  4.  Num,  or  Kneph ;  5.  Seti, 
or  Sate;  6.  Phthah,  the  Artist  God;  7.  Net,  or  Neith,  the  Goddess  of 
Sais;  8.  Ra,  the  Sun,  the  God  of  Heliopolis.  According  to  Wilkin- 
son, they  are  classed  in  a  different  order:  1.  Neph,  or  Kneph;  2. 
Amun,  or  Ammon ;  3.  Phthah ;  4.  Khem ;  5.  Sate ;  6.  Maut,  or  Mut ; 
7.  Pasht,  or  Diana ;  8.  Neith,  or  Minerva.  In  Wilkinson's  list,  Pasht, 
or  Diana,  is  classed  in  the  first  order  instead  of  the  second,  while  Ra 
is  not  classed  in  this  series. 

Ammon,  or  Amun,  was  "the  Revealer,"  "the  Concealed  God,"  "the 
Absolute  Spirit,"  "the  Father  of  all  the  other  gods;"  corresponding 
to  the  Zeus  of  the  Greeks.  He  is  styled  "the  King  of  the  Gods," 
"the  Lord  of  Heaven,"  "the  Ruler,"  "the  Lord  of  the  Two  Thrones," 
"the  Horus  or  God  of  the  Two  Egypts."  His  city  was  Thebes. 
Manetho  says  his  name  signifies  concealment.  The  root  "Amn"  sig- 
nifies to  veil  or  conceal.  His  original  name,  as  standing  in  the  rings 
of  the  Twelfth  Dynasty,  was  Amn.  After  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty 
he  was  called  Amn-Ra,  signifying  the  Sun.  Says  Bunsen:  "Incon- 
testably,  he  stands  in  Egypt  as  the  head  of  the  great  cosmogonic 
development." 

Kneph,  the  God  of  Spirit,  was  also  called  Knubis,  or  Num.  His 
name,  according  to  Plutarch  and  Diodorus,  means  Spirit.  At  Esna 
he  was  called  "the  Breath  of  those  in  the  Firmament."  At  Elephan- 
tine he  was  styled  "Lord  of  the  Inundations."  He  is  represented  as 


EGYPTIAN    RELIGION    AND   MYTHOLOGY. 


95 


Phthah. 


wearing  the  ram's  head  with  double  horns,  and  was  universally  wor- 
shiped in  Ethiopia.  The  sheep  were  sacred  to  him,  and  large  flocks 
of  them  were  kept  in  the  Thebais  for  their  wool.  The  serpent  or  asp 
was  also  sacred  to  Kneph.  He  was  called  Creator,  and  was  repre- 
sented in  the  figure  of  a  potter  with  a  wheel.  In  Philae  he  is  repre- 
sented as  forming  on  his  wheel  a  figure  of  Osiris,  bearing  the  inscrip- 
tion: "Num,  who  forms  on  his  wheel  the  Divine  Limbs  of  Osiris." 
He  is  likewise  called  "the  Sculptor  of  all  men,"  "the  god  who  made 
the  sun  and  the  moon  to  revolve."  According  to  Porphyry,  Phthah 
sprang  from  an  egg  which  came  from  the  mouth  of  Kneph,  and  in  this 
declaration  he  is  sustained  by  the  authority  of  the  monuments. 
Phthah  thus  represents  the  Absolute  Divine  Being  as  Spirit,  the  Spirit 
of  God  moving  on  the  face  of  the  waters,  a  moving  spirit  intertwined 
and  interwoven  with  the  chaotic  and  shapeless  mass  of  matter. 

Phthah — called  Hephaestus  by  the  Greeks,  Vulcan  by  the  Romans 
— represents  creation  by  the  truth,  formation,  stability;  and  is  called 
in  the  inscriptions  "Lord  of  Truth,"  "Lord  of  the  Beautiful  Face," 
"Father  of  Beginnings,  moving  the  Egg  of  the  Sun  and  Moon." 
Horapollo  and  Plutarch  considered  the  scarabseus,  or  beetle,  the  sign 
of  this  god,  as  an  emblem  of  the  world  and  its  creation.  In  an  inscrip- 
tion he  is  called  "Creator  of  all  things  in  the  world."  Says  lambli- 
cus:  "The  God  who  creates  with  truth  is  Phthah."  He  was  also 
related  with  the  sun,  having  thirty  fingers,  representing  the  thirty 
days  of  the  month.  He  is  also  represented  as  a  deformed  dwarf. 

Khem,  whom  the  Greeks  called  Pan,  the  principle  of  generation,  is 
sometimes  represented  as  holding  a  plowshare.  Amun  has  no  female 
companion.  Mut,  the  mother,  is  the  partner  of  Khem,  the  father. 
Seti,  the  Ray  or  Arrow,  a  feminine  figure  with  the  horns  of  a  cow,  is 
the  consort  of  Kneph.  Neith,  or  Net,  the  Goddess  of  Sais,  is  the 
companion  of  Phthah.  The  Greek  Athene,  Pallas,  or  Minerva,  is 
believed  to  be  derived  from  Neith,  and  her  name  signifies :  "  I  came  by 
myself."  Clemens  Alexandrinus  says  that  her  great  shrine  at  Sais 
has  an  open  roof  bearing  this  inscription:  "I  am  all  that  was  and  is 
and  is  to  be,  and  no  mortal  has  lifted  my  garment,  and  the  fruit  I 
bore  is  Helios."  This  signifies  her  identity  with  Nature. 

Helios,  or  Ra,  or  Phrah,  the  Sun-god,  the  God  of  Heliopolis  (City 
of  the  Sun),  is  the  eighth  and  last  of  the  first  order  of  gods,  accord-  Qr  plirai 
ing  to  Bunsen.  It  is  from  Ra,  or  Phrah,  that  the  name  Pharaoh  is 
derived.  As  we  have  already  seen,  Wilkinson  excludes  Ra  from  the 
first  order,  substituting  Pasht,  or  Bubastis,  the  Diana  of  the  Greeks, 
instead.  If  we  accept  Bunsen's  classification,  taking  the  Sun-god  as 
the  eighth  and  last  of  the  first  series,  we  shall  then  see  in  Ammon,  the 
Concealed  God,  the  pure  Spirit,  from  which  emanates  Kneph,  the  crea- 


Khem. 


Helios, 
or  Ra, 


96 


ANCIENT   EGYPT   AND   ETHIOPIA. 


Reason 
for  Two 
Theolo- 
gies. 


Egyptian 
and 
Greek 
Panthe- 
ons. 


The 

Popular 
Deities. 


tive  power;  followed  by  Khem,  the  generative  power;  followed  by 
Phthah,  the  artistic  principle;  after  which  come  the  three  feminine 
creative  principles  of  Nature  in  Neith,  the  nourishing  principle  in  Mut 
the  mother,  the  developing  principle  in  the  goddess  Pasht,  and  the 
completion  of  the  whole  cycle  in  Helios,  or  Ra,  or  Phrah,  the  Sun- 
god. 

The  reason  for  the  difference  between  the  priestly  and  popular  re- 
ligions of  Egypt  is  to  be  attributed  to  the  difference  of  race  origin 
between  the  priesthood  and  the  masses.  The  priests  are  believed  to 
have  been  the  descendants  of  the  Asiatic  immigrants  into  the  Nile  val- 
ley, while  the  great  body  of  the  people  are  supposed  to  have  been 
of  Ethiopian  extraction.  The  Asiatic  immigrants  and  conquerors 
brought  with  them  the  spiritual  ideas  represented  by  the  first  order 
of  gods,  while  the  Ethiopian  occupiers  of  the  Nile  valley  held  fast  to 
the  African  instinct  of  nature-worship.  The  combination  of  these 
two  principles  formed  the  Egyptian  religious  system.  The  first  order 
of  gods  was  therefore  for  the  priests,  the  initiated;  the  third  order 
was  for  the  people,  the  uninitiated ;  while  the  second  order  was  a  transi- 
tion between  the  first  and  third — children  of  the  first  and  parents  of 
the  third. 

As  we  have  said,  the  second  order  of  Egyptian  gods  was  incorpor- 
ated into  the  Greek  pantheon.  Thus  Khonso,  the  child  of  Ammon, 
was  the  same  as  the  Greek  Hercules,  God  of  Strength;  Thoth,  child 
of  Kneph,  was  the  equivalent  of  the  Greek  Hermes,  God  of  Knowledge ; 
Pecht,  child  of  Phthah,  was  represented  by  the  Greek  Artemis,  or 
Diana,  the  Goddess  of  Birth,  who  protected  women ;  Athor,  or  Hathor, 
was  the  same  as  the  Grecian  Aphrodite,  or  Venus,  the  Goddess  of  Love ; 
Seb  was  the  Greek  Kronos,  or  Saturn,  the  God  of  Time;  and  Nutpe 
was  the  Grecian  Rhea,  the  wife  of  Kronos. 

The  third  order  of  gods  were  the  children  of  the  second  order,  and 
were  manifestations  of  the  Divine  Spirit  in  the  external  universe. 
These,  as  we  have  said,  were  the  popular  gods,  though  worshiped  by 
the  untutored  masses.  The  gods  of  the  third  class,  though  lowest  in 
the  scale,  had  more  of  individuality  and  personality  about  them,  and 
their  worship  throughout  Egypt  was  universal  from  the  most  remote 
antiquity.  Says  Herodotus:  "The  Osiris  deities  are  the  only  gods 
worshiped  throughout  Egypt."  Says  Bunsen:  "They  stand  on  the 
oldest  monuments,  are  the  center  of  all  Egyptian  worship,  and  are 
perhaps  the  oldest  original  objects  of  reverence."  Wilkinson  says  the 
only  change  in  the  Egyptian  religious  system  was  during  the  four- 
teenth century  before  Christ,  when  Amun,  or  Ammon,  was  made  chief 
of  the  third  class  of  gods,  in  place  of  Typhon,  or  Seth,  the  God  of 
Destruction,  who  had  previously  held  the  first  place  and  had  been  the 


EGYPTIAN    RELIGION    AND    MYTHOLOGY.  97 

most  highly  reverenced  of  the  popular  deities.  Seth's  name  was  then 
chiseled  off  the  monuments,  and  Amun's  substituted  instead.  This 
religious  revolution  was  the  final  result  of  the  amalgamation  of  the 
two  races  and  religions  in  Egypt — the  Asiatic  Semitic  and  Aryan 
immigrants,  with  their  higher  spiritual  ideas,  and  the  Ethiopian  Ha- 
mitic  aborigines,  with  their  gross  African  nature-worship.  It  was  very 
natural  that  the  priests,  the  descendants  of  the  Asiatic  immigrants, 
should  place  their  religion  above  that  of  the  descendants  of  the  abo- 
riginal inhabitants,  and  that  they  should  have  permitted  for  a  time 
the  external  worship  until  the  public  was  prepared  for  the  reception 
of  a  higher  religious  faith  in  the  substitution  of  Amun,  the  Revealer, 
for  the  God  of  Terror  and  Destruction. 

The  most  popular  of  ancient  Egyptian  myths  was  that  of  Osiris  Myth  of 
and  Isis,  as  given  us  by  Plutarch.  Seb  and  Nutpe,  or  Nut — the  °sl^?8and 
Kronos  and  Rhea  of  the  Greeks,  the  Saturn  and  Cybele  of  the  Romans 
— were  the  parents  of  the  third  group  of  deities.  Seb  is  Time,  and 
Nut  is  Space.  The  Sun  pronounced  a  curse  upon  them,  in  not  per- 
mitting them  to  be  delivered  on  any  day  of  the  year.  This  symbolizes 
the  difficulty  of  the  thought  of  Creation.  But  Hermes,  or  Wisdom, 
who  loved  Rhea,  won  at  dice,  of  the  Moon,  five  days,  the  seventieth 
part  of  all  her  illuminations,  which  he  added  to  the  three  hundred  and 
sixty  days,  or  twelve  months.  This  implies  the  correction  of  the  cal- 
endar. The  five  days  added  were  the  birthdays  of  the  gods.  Osiris 
was  born  on  the  first  of  these  five  days,  when  a  voice  proclaimed:  "The 
Lord  of  all  things  is  now  born."  Arueris-Apollo,  the  elder  Horus, 
was  born  on  the  second  of  these  days;  Typhon  on  the  third;  Isis  on 
the  fourth;  Nepthys-Venus,  or  Victory,  on  the  fifth.  Osiris  and 
Arueris  were  children  of  the  Sun;  Isis  was  the  daughter  of  Hermes; 
and  Typhon  and  Nepthys  were  children  of  Kronos,  or  Saturn,  the 
God  of  Time. 

Osiris  took  Isis  for  his  wife,  and  went  through  the  world  civilizing  Ark  of 
and  refining  mankind  by  means  of  music,  poetry  and  oratory.  On  Osiris, 
his  return  Typhon  took  seventy-two  men  and  likewise  an  Ethiopian 
queen  and  constructed  an  ark  as  large  as  the  body  of  Osiris,  and  at 
a  feast  he  offered  it  to  the  one  whom  it  should  fit.  Osiris  got  into 
the  ark,  and  they  closed  the  lid  and  soldered  it  fast,  after  which  they 
cast  the  ark  into  the  Nile.  Then  Isis,  putting  on  mourning,  went  to 
look  for  the  ark.  As  her  inquiries  were  made  to  little  children,  these 
were  thought  by  the  Egyptians  to  possess  the  power  of  divination. 
She  then  found  Anubis,  child  of  Osiris  by  Nepthys,  wife  of  Typhon, 
who  informed  her  that  the  ark  was  entangled  in  a  tree  which  grew 
up  around  it  and  concealed  it  from  view.  The  king  constructed  from 
this  tree  a  pillar  to  support  his  house.  Isis  sat  down  and  wept,  where- 

VOI.   1. — 1 


98  ANCIENT   EGYPT   AND   ETHIOPIA. 

upon  the  queen's  women  came  to  her,  and  she  stroked  their  hair,  thus 
causing  fragrance  to  pass  into  it.  She  became  nurse  to  the  queen's 
child,  feeding  him  with  her  finger,  and  burning  his  impurities  by  means 
of  a  lambent  flame  during  the  night-time.  After  this  she  converted 
herself  into  a  swallow,  and  flying  around  the  house,  bewailed  her  fate. 
The  queen  watched  her  proceedings  and  cried  out  in  alarm,  thus  de- 
priving her  child  of  immortality.  Isis  then  begged  the  pillar,  and 
taking  it  down,  took  out  the  chest  and  cried  so  loud  as  to  frighten  the 
king's  younger  son  to  death.  Then  taking  the  ark  and  the  king's 
elder  son  she  sailed  away.  Being  chilled  by  the  cold  air  of  the  river 
she  became  angry  and  cursed  it,  so  that  it  became  dry.  Then  opening 
the  chest,  she  put  her  cheek  to  the  cheek  of  Osiris,  weeping  bitterly. 
The  little  boy  coming  and  peeping  into  the  chest,  she  gave  him  such 
a  terrible  look  as  to  frighten  him  to  death.  Then  Isis  went  to  her 
son  Horus,  who  was  at  nurse  at  Buto.  Typhon,  while  hunting  by 
moonlight,  saw  the  ark,  with  the  body  of  Osiris,  which  he  tore  into 
fourteen  pieces  and  cast  them  around.  Isis  went  in  a  boat  made  of 
papyrus  to  look  for  the  parts  of  her  husband's  body,  and  finding  them, 
buried  them  all  in  different  places.  The  soul  of  Osiris  then  returned 
from  Hades  to  train  up  his  son,  Horus.  Then  Horus  conquered  Ty- 
phon in  battle,  but  Isis  allowed  Typhon  to  make  his  escape.  It  is 
also  said  that  Isis  had  another  son  by  the  soul  of  Osiris  after  his 
death,  the  god  Harpocrates,  who  is  represented  as  lame  and  with  his 
finger  on  his  mouth,  signifying  childhood.  The  myth  of  Osiris  and 
Isis  was  considered  the  most  beautiful  in  Egyptian  mythology. 
Plu-  Plutarch  says  that  Osiris  afterward  became  Serapis,  the  Pluto  of 

EX_  the  under-world.  Plutarch,  in  explanation  of  the  myth  of  Osiris  and 
planation.  lsiS)  says  that  Osiris  is  the  personification  of  Water,  especially  the 
Nile,  and  that  Isis  is  the  Earth,  especially  the  Nile  valley  of  Egypt 
overflowed  by  the  river.  Horus,  the  son,  is  the  Air,  especially  the 
moist,  mild  air  of  Egypt.  Typhon  is  Fire,  especially  the  summer 
heat  which  dries  up  the  Nile  and  parches  the  land.  His  seventy-two 
companions  are  the  seventy-two  days  of  most  intense  heat,  as  viewed 
by  the  Egyptians.  Nepthys,  Typhon's  wife,  sister  of  Isis,  is  the 
Desert  out  of  Egypt,  but  which,  when  overflowed  by  a  higher  inun- 
dation of  the  Nile,  becomes  productive  and  has  a  child  by  Osiris, 
named  Anubis.  The  confinement  of  Osiris  in  the  ark  signifies  the 
summer  heat  drying  up  the  Nile  and  confining  it  to  its  channel.  The 
entanglement  of  the  ark  in  a  tree  means  the  division  of  the  Nile  into 
many  mouths  at  the  Delta  and  the  overhanging  of  the  river  by  the 
wood.  Isis  nursing  the  king's  child,  the  fragrance,  etc.,  signifies  the 
nourishment  of  plants  and  animals  by  the  earth.  The  tearing  of  the 
body  of  Osiris  into  fourteen  parts  by  Typhon  means  either  the  division 


EGYPTIAN    RELIGION    AND    MYTHOLOGY. 


99 


of  the  Nile  at  its  mouths  or  the  pools  of  water  left  after  the  inunda- 
tion has  dried  up. 

Besides  this  geographical  explanation  of  this  allegory,  Plutarch 
gives  a  scientific  and  astronomical  view.  Thus  Osiris  is  the  productive 
and  creative  principle  in  nature.  Isis  is  the  feminine  quality  in  nature, 
and  for  this  reason  is  called  by  Plato  the  nurse.  Typhon  is  the  de- 
structive principle  in  nature.  Horus  is  the  mediator  between  creation 
and  destruction.  This  gives  us  the  triad  of  Osiris,  Typhon  and  Horus, 
corresponding  to  the  Hindoo  triad  of  Brahma,  Siva  and  Vishnu,  and 
likewise  to  the  Persian  triad  of  Ormazd,  Ahriman  and  Mithra.  In 
this  way  the  Egyptian  myth  symbolizes  the  struggle  between  the  prin- 
ciples of  good  and  evil  in  the  world  of  nature. 

The  priests  sought  to  turn  the  worship  of  Osiris  and  Isis  into  an 
allegory  of  the  struggles,  trials,  sorrows  and  self -recovery  of  the  hu- 
man soul.  After  death  every  human  soul  adopted  the  name  and  sym- 
bols of  Osiris,  after  which  he  retired  to  the  under-world,  there  to  be 
judged  by  that  god.  Closely  related  with  this  was  the  doctrine  of  the 
soul's  transmigration  through  various  bodies — which  doctrine  Pythag- 
oras brought  from  Egypt.  These  doctrines  were  taught  in  the 
Mysteries.  Herodotus  says:  "I  know  them,  but  must  not  tell  them." 
lamblicus,  in  his  work  on  the  Mysteries,  says  that  they  taught  that 
One  God  existed  before  all  things,  and  that  this  One  God  was  to  be 
venerated  in  silence.  Then  Emeph  or  Neph  was  god  in  his  self -con- 
sciousness. After  this  in  Amun  his  mind  became  truth,  diffusing  light. 
Phthah  represents  truth  working  by  art,  and  Osiris  symbolizes  art 
producing  good. 

Bunsen  says  that  according  to  the  monuments  Osiris  and  Isis,  besides 
emanating  from  the  second  order  of  gods,  are  themselves  the  first  and 
second  order.  Osiris,  Isis  and  Horus  embrace  all  Egyptian  mythol- 
ogy, excepting  Amun  and  Neph.  In  Lower  Egypt  Phthah  was  the 
highest  god,  corresponding  to  the  Greek  Hephaestus,  the  Roman  Vul- 
can, the  god  of  fire  or  heat,  the  father  of  the  sun.  In  Upper  Egypt 
Amun  was  the  chief  god.  According  to  Manetho,  Phthah  reigned 
nine  thousand  years  before  the  other  gods,  signifying  that  this  was 
the  oldest  worship  in  Egypt.  Amun  is  the  head  of  a  cosmogony  pro- 
ceeding by  emanation  from  spirit  to  matter,  while  Phthah  is  at  the 
origin  of  a  cosmogony  ascending  by  evolution  from  matter  to  spirit. 
From  Phthah,  or  heat,  comes  light;  from  light  comes  life;  from  life 
proceed  gods,  men,  plants,  animals  and  all  organic  existence.  In  the 
inscriptions  Phthah  is  called  "  Father  of  the  Father  of  the  Gods," 
"King  of  both  Worlds,"  "God  of  all  Beginnings,"  "Former  of 
Things."  The  egg,  as  containing  the  germ  of  life,  is  one  of  his  sym- 
bols. The  scarabaeus,  or  beetle,  which  rolls  its  ball  of  earth,  supposed 


Scientific 
View. 


Priestly 
Allegory. 


Bunsen's 

Ex- 
planation. 


100 


ANCIENT    EGYPT   AND   ETHIOPIA. 


Gods  and 
God- 


Local 
Deities. 


Animal 

Worship. 


to  contain  its  egg,  is  sacred  to  Phthah.  Memphis  was  his  sacred  city. 
His  son,  Ra,  the  Sun-god,  had  his  temples  at  On,  which  the  Greeks 
called  Heliopolis,  meaning  "City  of  the  Sun,"  so  named  from  Ra's 
Greek  name  Helios.  The  cat  was  sacred  to  Ra.  As  Phthah  is  the 
god  of  all  beginnings  in  Lower  Egypt,  so  Ra  is  the  life-giving  god, 
the  active  ruler  of  the  world,  holding  in  one  hand  a  sceptre  and  in 
the  other  the  symbol  of  life. 

The  goddesses  of  Lower  Egypt  were  Neith  at  Sais,  Leto,  the  god- 
dess whose  temple  was  at  Buto,  and  Pasht  at  Bubastis.  As  we  have 
already  said,  the  chief  god  in  Upper  Egypt  was  Amun,  or  Ammon, 
the  Concealed  God;  and  next  to  him  is  Kneph,  or  Knubis,  the  Spirit 
of  God.  Their  companions  were  Mut,  the  mother,  and  Khonso.  The 
two  oldest  gods  were  Mentu,  the  rising  sun,  and  Atmu,  the  setting 
sun. 

In  Egypt,  as  in  Greece,  the  earliest  worship  was  of  local  divinities, 
who  were  afterwards  united  in  a  Pantheon.  As  in  Greece  Zeus  was 
at  first  worshiped  in  Dodona  and  Arcadia,  Apollo  in  Crete  and  Delos, 
Aphrodite  in  Cyprus,  Athene  at  Athens,  and  afterwards  these  local 
deities  were  united  in  one  company  as  the  twelve  great  gods  of  Olym- 
pus, so  in  Egypt  the  different  early  theologies  were  combined  in  the 
three  orders  of  gods,  with  Ammon  at  their  head.  But  in  Egypt,  as 
in  Greece,  each  city  and  district  retained  the  special  worship  of  its 
own  local  deity.  As  in  Greece  Athene  continued  to  be  the  protecting 
goddess  of  Athens,  and  Aphrodite  of  Cyprus,  so,  in  Egypt,  Set  con- 
tinued to  be  the  god  of  Ombos,  Leto  of  Buto,  Horus  of  Edf u,  Khem 
of  Coptos,  etc. 

The  one  great  singular  feature  about  the  Egyptian  religion  was 
animal-worship.  Herodotus  says:  "All  animals  in  Egypt  are  ac- 
counted sacred,  and  if  any  one  kills  these  animals  wilfully  he  is  put 
to  death."  This  account  of  Herodotus  is  not  strictly  correct,  as  many 
animals  were  not  considered  sacred,  though  most  of  them  were.  Wil- 
kinson mentions  more  than  one  hundred  Egyptian  animals,  over  one- 
half  of  which  number  were  sacred.  Hunting  and  fishing  being  favor- 
ite amusements  of  the  Egyptians,  the  killing  of  some  animals  must  have 
been  tolerated.  If,  however,  any  one  killed  any  of  the  sacred  animals, 
either  accidentally  or  willfully,  he  was  immediately  put  to  death.  In 
different  parts  of  Egypt  different  animals  were  accounted  sacred.  Be- 
sides the  sacred  bull  at  Memphis,  the  most  striking  sacred  animals  were 
the  Mnevis,  or  sacred  calf  at  Heliopolis,  the  sacred  sheep  at  Sais  and 
Thebes,  and  the  sacred  crocodiles  at  Ombos  and  Arsinoe.  Thus  the 
animal  sacred  in  one  place  was  not  so  regarded  in  another.  The  cat, 
the  ibis  and  the  beetle  were  particular  objects  of  worship.  The  death 
of  a  cat  in  a  private  house  caused  the  whole  family  to  shave  their  eye- 


EGYPTIAN    RELIGION    AND    MYTHOLOGY. 


101 


brows  in  token  of  their  grief.  The  Persian  king  Cambyses  was  en- 
abled to  conquer  the  Egyptians  by  placing  in  the  van  of  his  army 
multitudes  of  cats,  which  the  Egyptians  were  fearful  of  killing,  so 
that  they  abandoned  all  resistance. 

Cows  were  sacred  to  Isis,  and  this  goddess  was  represented  in  the 
form  of  a  cow.  The  gods  often  wore  animals'  heads.  Amun  is  rep- 
resented with  the  ram's  head.  The  worship  of  Apis,  the  sacred  bull 
of  Memphis,  the  representative  of  Osiris,  was  one  of  the  most  striking 
and  imposing  among  Egyptian  religious  ceremonies.  Plutarch  de- 
scribes him  as  a  fair  and  beautiful  image  of  the  soul  of  Osiris.  He 
was  a  bull  with  black  hair,  a  white  spot  on  his  forehead,  and  some  other 
distinguishing  marks.  He  was  kept  in  a  magnificent  temple  at  Mem- 
phis. The  festival  in  his  honor  continued  seven  days,  during  which 
time  a  great  multitude  of  people  assembled.  When  he  died  his  body 
was  embalmed  and  buried  with  great  pomp,  and  the  priests  went  in 
quest  of  another  Apis,  which,  when  discovered  by  the  distinguishing 
marks,  was  taken  to  Memphis,  fed  with  care  and  exercised,  and  con- 
sulted as  an  oracle.  The  burial-place  of  the  sacred  bulls  was  in  recent 
years  discovered  near  Memphis.  It  consists  of  an  arched  gallery  cut 
in  the  solid  rock,  two  thousand  feet  long,  twenty-five  feet  high  and 
twenty-five  feet  wide.  On  each  side  is  a  series  of  recesses,  each  of 
which  contains  a  large  sarcophagus  of  granite,  fifteen  by  eight  feet, 
in  which  the  body  of  a  sacred  bull  was  deposited.  In  1852  thirty  of 
these  had  been  discovered.  Before  this  tomb  is  a  paved  road,  with 
lions  in  rows  on  each  side,  and  before  this  is  a  temple  with  a  vestibule. 
As  we  have  previously  remarked,  the  animals  sacred  in  one  place  were 
not  so  regarded  in  another,  and  this  difference  of  worship  often  led  to 
bitter  enmities  between  the  several  nomes.  Thus  at  Ombos  the  croco- 
dile was  worshiped,  while  at  Tentyra  it  was  hunted  and  abhorred.  The 
ram-headed  Amun  was  adored  at  Thebes,  and  the  sheep  was  there  a 
sacred  animal,  while  the  goat  was  killed  for  food.  In  Mendes  the  goat 
was  worshiped  and  the  sheep  killed  and  eaten.  Mutton  was  likewise 
eaten  at  Lycopolis,  in  compliment  to  the  wolf,  which  was  there  an 
object  of  veneration. 

The  sacred  animals  at  death  were  embalmed  by  the  priests  and 
buried,  and  thousands  upon  thousands  of  mummies  of  dogs,  cats, 
wolves,  sheep,  crocodiles,  birds  and  other  animals  are  found  in  the 
tombs.  The  sacred  animals  were  reverenced  as  containing  a  divine 
element.  Says  Wilkinson:  "The  Egyptians  may  have  deified  some 
animals  to  insure  their  preservation,  some  to  prevent  their  unwhole- 
some meat  being  used  as  food."  The  cow,  the  ox,  the  dog,  the  cat, 
the  ibis,  appeared  to  the  Egyptians  as  gifted  with  supernatural  pow- 
ers. This  people  reverenced  the  mysterious  manifestation  of  the  Di- 


Worship 
of  Apis. 


Animal 
Mum- 
mies. 


102 


ANCIENT    EGYPT   AND    ETHIOPIA. 


Religious 
Festivals. 


Daily 
Life. 


Priests. 


Priestly 
Duties 

and 
Customs. 


vine  presence  in  all  external  nature.  Animals  were  considered  expres-i 
sions  of  Divine  thoughts.  This  belief  reached  its  extreme  point  in  the 
Egyptian  reverence  for  animal  life.  This  people  saw  something  di- 
vine and  found  Deity  in  nature. 

The  Egyptians  had  more  religious  festivals  than  any  other  ancient 
people,  every  month  and  day  being  governed  by  a  god.  There  were 
two  feasts  of  the  New  Year;  twelve  of  the  first  days  of  the  months; 
one  of  the  rising  of  the  dog-star;  and  others  to  the  great  gods,  to 
seed  time  and  harvest,  to  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  Nile,  as  the  nine 
days'  feast  in  honor  of  Osiris,  the  Benefactor  of  men.  The  feast  of 
the  lamps  at  Sais  was  in  honor  of  Neith,  and  was  observed  throughout 
Egypt.  Other  noted  festivals  were  the  feast  of  the  death  of  Osiris, 
and  the  feast  of  his  resurrection,  when  the  people  exclaimed:  "We 
have  found  him!  Good  luck!"  One  of  the  feasts  of  Isis  lasted  four 
days.  The  great  feast  at  Bubastis  was  the  most  noted  of  all  the 
Egyptian  festivals.  On  one  of  these  occasions  seven  hundred  thou- 
sand persons  sailed  on  the  Nile  with  music.  At  another  bloody  con- 
flicts occurred  between  the  armed  priests  and  the  armed  men  who  con- 
veyed the  image  of  the  god  to  the  temple. 

The  daily  life  of  the  people  was  an  embodiment  of  the  history  of 
the  deities.  The  French  Egyptologist,  De  Rouge,  describes  an  old 
papyrus  which  says:  "On  the  twelfth  of  Chorak  no  one  is  to  go  out 
of  doors,  for  on  that  day  the  transformation  of  Osiris  into  the  bird 
Wennu  took  place ;  on  the  fourteenth  of  Toby  no  voluptuous  songs 
must  be  listened  to,  for  Isis  and  Nepthys  bewail  Osiris  on  that  day. 
On  the  third  of  Mechir  no  one  can  go  on  a  journey,  because  Set  then 
began  a  war."  None  must  go  out  on  another  specified  day.  The  day 
on  which  the  other  gods  conquered  Set  was  regarded  as  lucky,  and  the 
child  born  on  that  day  was  believed  to  be  sure  to  live  to  a  good  old 
age. 

The  priests,  of  which  every  temple  had  its  own  separate  body,  did 
not  form  an  exclusive  caste,  though  the  priestly  office  was  generally 
continued  by  inheritance  in  certain  families.  Priests  could  be  mili- 
tary commanders,  provincial  governors,  judges  of  architects.  The 
sons  of  soldiers  were  often  priests,  while  soldiers  frequently  married 
daughters  of  priests.  Joseph,  who  was  a  foreigner  naturalized  in 
Egypt,  married  the  daughter  of  the  High  Priest  of  On,  or  Heliopolis. 
The  Egyptian  priests  were  of  different  grades — the  chief  priests,  or 
pontiffs,  the  prophets,  the  judges,  the  scribes,  those  who  examined 
victims,  the  keepers  of  the  robes,  the  keepers  of  the  sacred  animals, 
and  others.  Women  also  performed  official  duties  in  the  temples. 

The  priests  were  exempt  from  taxation  and  were  supported  out  of 
the  public  stores.  Their  duties  were  to  superintend  sacrifices,  proces- 


EGYPTIAN   RELIGION   AND   MYTHOLOGY. 


103 


sions,  funerals,  etc.  They  were  initiated  into  all  the  religious  mys- 
teries, and  were  taught  surveying.  They  were  particular  as  to  their 
food,  refraining  from  eating  peas,  beans,  onions  and  garlic,  while  fish 
and  swine-flesh  were  strictly  forbidden.  They  bathed  twice  a  day  and 
twice  during  the  night,  and  shaved  the  head  and  body  every  third  day. 
Their  fasts,  which  lasted  from  one  to  six  weeks,  took  place  after  their 
purification.  They  offered  prayers  for  the  dead. 

The  priestly  dress  was  simple,  made  chiefly  of  linen,  and  consisted     Priestly 
of  an  undergarment  and  a  loose  upper  robe,  with  full  sleeves,  and  the 
leopard-skin  above;  while  sometimes  there  were  one  or  two  feathers 
in  the  head. 

Chaplets  and  flowers  were  placed  upon  the  altars,  such  as  the  lotus  Invoca- 
and  papyrus ;  likewise  baskets  of  figs  and  grapes,  and  alabaster  vases  Thanks- 
of  ointment.  Necklaces,  bracelets  and  jewelry  were  also  offered  as  in-  givings. 
vocations  and  thanksgivings. 

Oxen  and  other  animals  were  offered  as  sacrifices,  and  the  blood  was   Sacrifices, 
permitted  to  flow  over  the  altar.     Incense  was  offered  to  all  the  gods 
and  goddesses  in  censers. 

Religious    processions   were   another    characteristic    feature   of   the  Religious 
Egyptian  system.     In  one  of  these  shrines  were  carried  on  the  shoul- 
ders  by  means  of  long  staves  passed  through  rings.     In  others  the 
statues  of  the  gods  were  carried,  and  arks  overshadowed  by  the  wings 
of  the  Goddess  of  Truth  were  spread  over  the  sacred  beetle. 

The  most  highly  esteemed  of  the  priestly  order  were  the  prophets,    Prophets, 
who  studied  the  ten  hieratical  books.     The  stolists  dressed  and  un- 
dressed the  images,  attended  to  the  vestments  of  the  priests,  and  marked 
the  beasts  chosen  for  sacrifice.     The  scribes  served  for  the  Apis,  or 
sacred  bull,  and  their  chief  requirement  was  great  learning. 

The  priests,  whose  life  was  full  of  duties  and  restrictions,  had  only  Religious 
one  wife,  and  were  circumcised  like  other  Egyptians.  They  devoted 
all  their  time  to  study  or  religious  service.  The  gloomy  character  of 
the  Egyptian  religion  was  in  strong  contrast  with  the  cheerful  wor- 
ship of  the  Greeks.  One  Greek  writer  says:  "The  gods  of  Egypt 
rejoice  in  lamentations,  those  of  Greece  in  dances."  Another  says: 
"The  Egyptians  offer  their  gods  tears." 

The  Egyptian  temples  surpassed  in  grandeur  all  other  architectural  Temples, 
monuments  in  the  world.  The  temple  of  Amun,  in  the  fertile  oasis 
of  Siwah,  in  the  Libyan  desert,  was  one  of  the  most  celebrated  oracles 
of  antiquity.  Near  this  temple,  in  a  grove  of  palm-trees,  rose  a  hot 
spring,  the  Fountain  of  the  Sun,  whose  bubbling  and  smoking  were 
believed  to  betoken  the  Divine  presence.  The  oasis  was  a  stopping- 
place  for  caravans  passing  between  Egypt  and  Central  Africa,  and 
many  rich  offerings  were  left  in  the  temple  by  traveling  merchants, 


104, 


ANCIENT   EGYPT   AND   ETHIOPIA. 


Soul's 
Transmi- 
gration. 


Soul's 

Im- 
mortality. 


Em- 
balming. 


who  thus  showed  their  gratitude  for  escaping  the  perils  of  the  desert, 
or  thus  sought  the  favor  of  Amun  for  their  journey  when  just  begun. 

The  immortality  of  the  soul  and  the  belief  in  a  future  state,  based 
on  rewards  and  punishments  for  good  or  evil  in  this  life,  formed  a 
cardinal  point  of  Egyptian  religious  faith  from  the  earliest  period; 
and  the  belief  in  the  transmigration  of  the  soul  was  closely  connected 
with  the  reverence  for  animals.  Bunsen  says  the  Egyptians  viewed 
the  human  soul  and  the  animal  soul  as  the  same,  and  for  this  reason 
the  animal  was  considered  sacred  to  man.  The  Egyptian  doctrine  of 
transmigration  differed  from  that  of  the  Hindoos  in  one  essential  point ; 
there  being  no  idea  of  retribution  in  the  Egyptian  doctrine,  as  in  the 
Hindoo.  The  Egyptian  doctrine,  according  to  Herodotus,  was  that 
every  human  soul  must  pass  through  all  animals,  fishes,  insects  and 
birds,  thus  completing  the  whole  circuit  of  animated  existence,  after 
which  it  would  again  enter  the  human  body  from  which  it  came.  The 
Hindoo  doctrine  regards  transmigration  as  a  punishment  for  sin  and 
wickedness,  and  that  only  those  who  lead  an  unholy  life  are  subjected 
to  this  punishment,  from  which  the  only  release  is  the  leading  of  a  pure 
and  holy  life.  Herodotus  further  says  that  the  complete  circuit  of 
transmigration  is  performed  by  the  soul  in  three  thousand  years,  and 
that  it  does  not  begin  until  the  body  decays.  This  explains  the  extra- 
ordinary care  taken  in  ornamenting  the  tombs,  as  the  permanent  rest- 
ing-places for  the  dead  during  a  long  period.  Diodorus  says  that  the 
Egyptians  ornamented  their  tombs  as  the  enduring  residences  of  man- 
kind. The  doctrine  of  transmigration  also  accounts  for  the  custom 
of  embalming  the  dead,  in  order  to  preserve  the  body  from  decay,  and 
to  render  it  fit  to  receive  the  soul  on  its  return. 

Mr.  Birch  says  that  the  doctrine  of  the  soul's  immortality  is  as  old 
as  the  inscriptions  of  the  Twelfth  Dynasty,  of  which  many  contain 
extracts  from  the  Ritual  for  the  Dead.  Mr.  Birch  has  translated  one 
hundred  and  forty-six  chapters  of  this  Ritual  from  the  text  of  the 
Turin  Papyrus,  which  is  the  most  complete  in  Europe.  Chapters  of 
it  are  seen  on  mummy-cases,  on  mummy-wraps,  on  the  walls  of  tombs, 
and  on  papyri  within  the  sarcophagi.  This  Ritual  is  the  only  rem- 
nant of  the  Hermetic  Books  constituting  the  library  of  the  priests. 
This  liturgy  represents  Osiris  and  his  triad  as  struggling  with  Set  and 
his  devils  for  the  soul  of  the  departed,  in  the  presence  of  the  Sun-god, 
the  source  of  life. 

The  Egyptians  believed  that  happiness  in  the  future  state  depended 
upon  well-doing  in  this  life.  As  we  have  seen,  the  belief  that  the  soul, 
after  making  the  circuit  of  transmigration  through  the  animal  creaj 
tion,  would  return  to  the  body  from  which  it  had  departed,  caused  the 
universal  national  custom  of  embalming  the  dead  to  preserve  their 


EGYPTIAN    RELIGION   AND   MYTHOLOGY.  105 

bodies  from  decay.  The  period  of  mourning  for  the  dead  lasted  sev- 
enty-two days,  during  which  the  body  of  the  deceased  was  in  the  charge 
of  the  embalmers.  After  the  process  of  embalming  had  been  finished, 
the  mummy  thus  formed  was  returned  to  the  house  of  its  earthly  abode, 
where  its  friends  kept  it  for  a  month  or  a  year,  and  where  feasts  were 
given  in  its  honor,  it  being  always  present  in  the  company  of  guests. 
The  mummy,  in  its  stone  chest,  or  sarcophagus,  was  then  carried  in 
an  imposing  funeral  procession  to  the  borders  of  the  sacred  lake,  where 
occurred  the  trial  of  the  deceased  by  a  priestly  tribunal  of  forty-two 
judges,  symbolizing  the  soul's  trial  before  the  judgment-seat  of  the 
gods  presided  over  by  Osiris.  Masked  priests  represented  the  gods  of 
the  underworld.  Typhon  is  represented  as  accusing  the  deceased  and 
demanding  his  punishment.  The  intercessors  plead  for  him.  Any  one 
was  at  liberty  to  bring  accusations  against  the  deceased.  A  large  pair 
of  scales  was  brought  forward,  on  one  side  of  which  was  placed  the 
conduct  of  the  deceased  in  a  bottle,  and  on  the  other  side  was  set  the 
image  of  truth.  If  it  was  clearly  shown  that  the  deceased  had  led 
an  evil  life,  the  priestly  judges  pronounced  an  unfavorable  verdict 
upon  it  as  to  its  future  fate,  in  which  case  the  body  was  denied  the 
privilege  of  burial  with  the  just  opposite  the  sacred  lake  and  was  re- 
turned to  its  friends,  who  usually  buried  it  on  the  side  of  the  sacred 
lake  opposite  the  resting-place  of  the  just.  If,  however,  the  verdict 
of  the  judges  was  favorable,  the  lamentations  of  the  funeral  train  gave 
way  to  songs  of  triumph,  and  the  deceased  was  congratulated  upon 
being  admitted  into  the  happy  companionship  of  the  friends  of  Osiris ; 
and  the  body  in  its  sarcophagus  was  ferried  across  the  sacred  lake  and 
interred  with  those  of  its  ancestors  in  a  tomb  richly  ornamented. 
These  ceremonies  are  represented  on  the  funeral  papyri.  The  forty- 
two  judges  who  tried  the  dead  represented  the  forty-two  nomes,  or 
provinces  of  Egypt ;  and  every  nome  had  its  sacred  lake,  across  which 
all  funeral  processions  must  pass  on  their  way  to  the  city  of  the  dead. 
On  the  sides  of  these  sacred  lakes  nearest  the  abodes  of  the  living  have 
been  found  the  remains  of  great  numbers  who  were  rejected  by  the 
judges  at  their  trial,  and  whose  bodies  were  in  consequence  returned 
in  disgrace  to  their  friends,  to  be  disposed  of  in  the  most  speedy  man- 
ner possible.  At  death  all  became  equal,  and  every  one,  from  the  king 
and  highest  pontiff  to  the  lowest  swineherd,  was  subject  to  the  same 
solemn  judgment  passed  at  death,  and  the  fear  which  it  inspired  exer- 
cised a  wholesome  influence  over  all  classes. 

The  soul's  trial  before  the  judgment-seat  of  the  gods,  as  repre-       i>he 
sented  in  the  papyrus  Book  of  the  Dead,  and  before  which  the  soul      Soul's 
had  to  pass  an  acquittal  before  it  could  enter  the  abode  of  the  blessed, 
is  described  as  follows:    Forty-two  gods  occupy  the  judgment-seat, 


106 


Hall 

of  the 

Two 

Truths. 


Religious 
Ideals. 


ANCIENT   EGYPT  AND   ETHIOPIA. 

over  which  Osiris  presides,  and  before  whom  are  the  scales,  in  one  of 
which  is  placed  the  statue  of  perfect  Justice,  while  in  the  other  is  the 
heart  of  the  deceased.  The  soul  of  the  departed  stands  watching  the 
balance,  while  Horus  examines  the  plummet  showing  on  which  side  the 
beam  inclines;  and  Thoth,  the  Justifier,  records  the  sentence.  If  the 
decision  of  this  divine  tribunal  is  favorable,  the  soul  is  sealed  as  "jus- 
tified." 

The  Hall  of  the  Two  Truths,  described  in  the  Book  of  the  Dead, 
recounts  the  scene  when  the  soul  appears  before  the  gods,  forty-two  of 
whom  are  ready  to  feed  on  the  blood  of  the  wicked.  The  soul,  address- 
ing the  Lord  of  Truth,  denies  having  done  evil,  saying:  "I  have  not 
afflicted  any.  I  have  not  told  falsehoods.  I  have  not  made  the  labor- 
ing man  do  more  than  his  task.  I  have  not  been  idle.  I  have  not 
murdered.  I  have  not  committed  fraud.  I  have  not  injured  the  im- 
ages of  the  gods.  I  have  not  taken  scraps  of  the  bandages  of  the 
dead.  I  have  not  committed  adultery.  I  have  not  cheated  by  false 
weights.  I  have  not  kept  milk  from  sucklings.  I  have  not  caught 
the  sacred  birds."  He  then  says  to  each  god:  "I  have  not  been  idle. 
I  have  not  boasted.  I  have  not  stolen.  I  have  not  counterfeited,  nor 
killed  the  sacred  beasts,  nor  blasphemed,  nor  refused  to  hear  the  truth, 
nor  despised  God  in  my  heart."  In  other  texts  the  soul  is  represented 
as  saying:  "I  have  loved  God.  I  have  given  bread  to  the  hungry, 
water  to  the  thirsty,  garments  to  the  naked,  and  an  asylum  to  the 
abandoned." 

Many  of  the  virtues  taught  by  Christianity  appear  to  have  been  the 
ideal  of  the  ancient  Egyptians.  Brugsch  tells  us  that  a  thousand 
voices  from  the  tombs  declare  this.  One  inscription  in  Upper  Egypt 
says :  "  He  loved  his  father,  he  honored  his  mother,  he  loved  his  breth- 
ren, and  never  went  from  his  home  in  bad  temper.  He  never  preferred 
the  great  man  to  the  low  one."  Another  says:  "I  was  a  wise  man, 
my  soul  loved  God.  I  was  a  brother  to  the  great  men  and  a  father 
to  the  humble  ones,  and  never  was  a  mischief-maker."  An  inscription 
at  Sais,  on  a  priest  who  lived  in  the  days  of  Cambyses,  says:  "I  hon- 
ored my  father,  I  esteemed  my  mother,  I  loved  my  brothers.  I  found 
graves  for  the  unburied  dead.  I  instructed  little  children.  I  took 
care  of  orphans  as  though  they  were  my  own  children.  For  great 
misfortunes  were  on  Egypt  in  my  time,  and  on  this  city  of  Sais."  The 
following  is  an  inscription  on  a  tomb  of  a  nomad  prince  at  Beni-Has- 
san:  "What  I  have  done  I  will  say.  My  goodness  and  my  kindness 
were  ample.  I  never  oppressed  the  fatherless  nor  the  widow.  I  did 
not  treat  cruelly  the  fishermen,  the  shepherds  or  the  poor  laborers. 
There  was  nowhere  in  my  time  hunger  or  want.  For  I  cultivated  all 
my  fields,  far  and  near,  in  order  that  their  inhabitants  might  have  food. 


Noted 


ANCIENT   ETHIOPIA.  107 

I  never  preferred  the  great  and  powerful  to  the  humble  and  poor,  but 
did  equal  justice  to  all."  A  king's  tomb  at  Thebes  describes  the  relig- 
ious creed  of  a  Pharaoh  thus :  "  I  lived  in  truth,  and  fed  my  soul  with 
justice.  What  I  did  to  men  was  done  in  peace,  and  how  I  loved  God, 
God  and  my  heart  well  know.  I  have  given  bread  to  the  hungry,  water 
to  the  thirsty,  clothes  to  the  naked,  and  a  shelter  to  the  stranger.  I 
honored  the  gods  with  sacrifices,  and  the  dead  with  offerings."  A 
rock  at  Lycopolis  pleads  for  an  ancient  ruler  in  these  words :  "  I  never 
took  the  child  from  its  mother's  bosom,  nor  the  poor  man  from  the  side 
of  his  wife."  Hundreds  of  stones  in  Egypt  declare  the  best  gifts 
which  the  gods  bestow  on  their  favorites  to  be  "the  respect  of  men,  and 
the  love  of  women." 

On  a  monumental  stele  discovered  at  Karnak  by  M.  Mariette,  and 
translated  by  De  Rouge,  is  an  inscription  recording  the  triumphs  of 
Thothmes  III.  in  strains  sounding  like  the  song  of  Miriam  or  the 
Hymn  of  Deborah,  the  king  recognizing  his  power  and  triumph  as  the 
work  of  the  great  god  Amun.  A  like  strain  of  religious  poetry  is 
found  in  the  Papyrus  of  Sallier,  now  in  the  British  Museum.  This  is 
an  epic  poem  by  the  Egyptian  poet  Pentaour,  celebrating  the  cam- 
paigns of  Rameses  the  Great,  and  was  carved  in  full  on  the  walls  of 
Karnak.  It  especially  describes  an  incident  in  a  war  with  the  Kheta, 
or  Hittites,  of  Syria,  who  had  revolted  against  Rameses.  Rameses 
being  separated  from  his  main  force  by  a  strategem,  was  in  extreme 
peril;  and  Pentaour  describes  him  as  calling  upon  Amun,  God  of 
Thebes,  for  aid,  recounting  the  sacrifices  he  had  offered  to  the  god, 
and  imploring  the  god  not  to  leave  him  to  the  mercy  of  the  cruel  Syrian 
tribes.  Rameses  is  represented  as  pleading  thus :  "  Have  I  not  erected 
to  thee  great  temples?  Have  I  not  sacrificed  to  thee  thirty  thousand 
oxen?  I  have  brought  from  Elephantine  obelisks  to  set  up  to  thy 
name.  I  invoke  thee,  O  my  father,  Amun.  I  am  in  the  midst  of  a 
throng  of  unknown  tribes,  and  alone.  But  Amun  is  better  to  me  than 
thousands  of  archers  and  millions  of  horsemen.  Amun  will  prevail 
over  the  enemy."  After  defeating  his  enemies,  Rameses,  in  his  song 
of  triumph,  says:  "Amun-Ra  has  been  at  my  right  and  my  left  in  the 
battles ;  his  mind  has  inspired  my  own,  and  has  prepared  the  downfall 
of  my  enemies.  Amun-Ra,  my  father,  has  brought  the  whole  world 
to  my  feet." 

SECTION  VII.— ANCIENT  ETHIOPIA. 

SOUTH  of  Egypt — in  the  region  now  called  Nubia  and  Abyssinia —    Location 
lived  the  ancient  Ethiopians,  some  tribes  of  whom  were  as  highly  civil-   Ethiopia 
ized  as  the  ancient  Egyptians,  but  we  know  very  little  of  their  history, 
1— 


108 


ANCIENT   EGYPT   AND    ETHIOPIA. 


Various 

Arab 

Tribes. 


Fertility 

of 
Ethiopia. 


Meroe. 


Ethiopian 
Kingdom. 


and  their  origin  is  involved  in  the  impenetrable  obscurity  of  a  remote 
antiquity.  The  ruins  of  splendid  monuments,  obelisks,  sphinxes,  colos- 
sal statues,  rock-cut  temples,  etc.,  along  that  portion  of  the  Nile  val- 
ley, fully  attest  the  progress  of  this  ancient  Hamitic  people  in  the  art 
of  architecture. 

Besides  the  civilized  Ethiopians,  this  region  was  occupied  in  ancient 
times,  as  now,  by  various  Arab  tribes  in  different  stages  of  advance- 
ment from  the  complete  savage  to  the  hunting  and  fishing  tribes,  and 
from  these  to  the  nomadic  herdsmen  and  shepherds.  The  civilized 
Ethiopians  dwelt  in  cities,  possessed  a  civil  government  and  laws,  were 
acquainted  with  the  use  of  hieroglyphics,  and  the  fame  of  their  prog- 
ress in  knowledge  and  the  social  arts  had  in  the  earliest  ages  spread 
over  a  considerable  portion  of  the  earth. 

The  soil  of  the  portion  of  the  Nile  valley  occupied  by  the  ancient 
Ethiopians  was  in  their  day  as  fertile  as  the  richest  part  of  Egypt, 
and  where  protected  it  yet  continues  to  be  so,  but  the  hills  on  both 
sides  are  bordered  by  sandy  deserts,  against  which  they  afford  but  a 
scanty  protection.  The  navigation  of  the  Nile  is  impeded  by  the  wind- 
ings of  the  river,  and  by  the  obstruction  of  cataracts  and  rapids,  so 
that  intercourse  is  more  generally  maintained  by  caravans  than  by 
boats.  In  the  southern  part  of  the  valley  the  river  incloses  a  number 
of  fertile  islands.  The  productions  of  the  Nile  valley  in  Nubia  are 
essentially  the  same  as  those  of  Egypt.  All  along  this  portion  of  the 
valley  is  a  succession  of  stupendous  monuments,  rivaling  in  beauty 
those  of  Thebes,  and  surpassing  them  in  grandeur. 

The  island  of  Meroe — so  called  because  it  was  almost  surrounded 
with  rivers — possessed  large  numbers  of  camels,  which  were  used  in  its 
immense  caravan  trade;  and  the  ivory,  ebony  and  spices  which  the 
Ethiopians  sent  down  the  river  into  Egypt  were  obtained  by  traffic 
with  the  inhabitants  of  Central  Africa.  Meroe  had  better  harbors  for 
commerce  with  India  than  had  Egypt,  as  the  Ethiopian  ports  on  the 
Red  Sea  were  superior  to  the  Egyptian,  and  the  caravan-routes  to 
them  were  shorter  and  the  perilous  portion  of  the  navigation  of  that  sea 
was  entirely  avoided.  In  the  wild  tracts  of  country  in  the  vicinity 
of  Meroe  are  animals  which  were  hunted  by  the  ancient  savage  tribes, 
as  they  are  by  the  modern,  such  as  the  giraffe,  or  camelopard.  The 
elephant  is  found  in  Abyssinia,  not  far  south  of  the  neighborhood 
of  Meroe. 

About  one  thousand  years  before  Christ,  Meroe  was  the  seat  of  a 
flourishing  Ethiopian  kingdom,  which  for  a  time  held  Upper  Egypt 
under  sway,  but  its  early  history  is  shrouded  in  the  obscurity  of  a  dim 
past.  The  monuments  of  Meroe  are  believed  to  have  been  modeled 
from  the  wonderful  architectural  structures  of  Egypt;  but  cut  off 


ANCIENT   ETHIOPIA.  109 

from  the  rest  of  the  civilized  world  by  Egypt,  the  Ethiopians  can  only 
be  traced  in  history  when  their  country  is  invaded,  or  when  they  them- 
selves invade  other  lands.  We  have  seen  that  several  Egyptian  kings 
conquered  Ethiopia  and  ruled  the  country  for  short  intervals.  The 
fabled  Assyrian  queen,  Semiramis,  is  said  to  have  invaded  Ethiopia  in 
the  eleventh  century  before  Christ.  This  is  doubtful,  but  we  have  cer- 
tain knowledge  that  the  Ethiopians  at  this  time  were  a  powerful  na- 
tion, and  that  they  aided  Shishak,  King  of  Egypt,  in  his  war  against 
Rehoboam,  King  of  Judah,  in  957  B.  C.  Sixteen  years  later  Zerah, 
King  of  Ethiopia,  is  said  to  have  invaded  Judah  with  an  immense 
army,  but  was  totally  defeated.  According  to  the  Scripture  narra- 
tive, the  Ethiopians  had  made  considerable  progress  in  the  art  of  war, 
controlled  the  Red  Sea  navigation,  and  held  sway  over  a  large  portion 
of  Arabia.  The  expense  of  so  vast  and  distant  an  expedition  bears 
evidence  to  the  fact  that  the  Ethiopian  kingdom  must  then  have  been 
in  a  flourishing  condition. 

The  gradual  increase  of  the  Ethiopian  power  ultimately  enabled  Sabaco. 
King  Sabaco,  or  Shebak,  to  conquer  Egypt,  over  which  he  and  his  two 
successors,  Sevechus  and  Tarakus,  reigned  successively.  Sevechus, 
called  So  in  Scripture,  was  so  powerful  a  monarch  that  Hoshea,  King 
of  Israel,  rose  in  revolt  against  the  Assyrians,  relying  upon  the  aid 
of  So ;  but,  not  being  supported  by  his  Ethiopian  ally,  Hoshea  and 
his  subjects  were  carried  into  the  Assyrian  Captivity.  Tarakus,  the 
Tirhakah  of  Scripture,  was  a  more  warlike  sovereign,  for  he  led  an  Tirkakah 
army  against  Sennacherib,  King  of  Assyria,  who  was  then  besieging 
Jerusalem ;  and  the  Egyptian  traditions,  preserved  in  the  time  of 
Herodotus,  give  the  account  of  the  destruction  of  Sennacherib's  army 
of  one  hundred  and  eighty-five  thousand  men  in  a  night  panic,  as  men- 
tioned in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures. 

In  the  reign  of  Psammetichus  in  Egypt,  in  the  seventh   century  Egyptian 
before  Christ,  two  hundred  and  forty  thousand  Egyptians  of  the  war-   Mig^tion 
rior-caste,  offended  at  their  king's  favor  to  Greek  merchants  whom  he   Ethiopia, 
had  invited  to  settle  in  Egypt,  migrated  to  Ethiopia,  and  were  settled 
in  the  extreme  southern  part  of  that  country,  where  they  added  im- 
mensely to  the  prosperity  of  the  state.     These  useful   colonists  in- 
structed the  Ethiopians  in  the  improvements  then  recently  made  in  the 
art  of  war,  and  thus  prepared  them  for  resisting  the  formidable  in- 
vasion by  the  Persians. 

No  sooner  had  the  Persian  king,  Cambyses,  conquered  Egypt,  in     Persian 
525  B.  C.,  than  he  invaded  Ethiopia  without  preparing  any  store  of   Invasion- 
provisions,  ignorant  of  the  deserts  through  which  he  had  to  pass,  so 
that  when  the  invasion  took  place  the  Persian  army  was  destroyed  by 
famine. 


110 


ANCIENT   EGYPT   AND    ETHIOPIA. 


Ethiopian 
Religion. 


New 
Religion. 


Ethiopian 
Queens. 


Pyramids 
of 

Meroe. 


Axume. 


The  religion  of  the  ancient  Ethiopians  was  in  early  times  similar  to 
that  of  Egypt.  Ammon  was  the  chief  of  the  Ethiopian  gods,  and 
several  temples  were  erected  to  his  worship.  The  political  power  was 
vested  in  a  priesthood,  who  comprised  a  sacred  caste.  They  chose  the 
king  from  one  of  their  own  number,  and  could  take  his  life  at  pleasure 
in  the  name  of  their  gods.  The  Ethiopian  priests  possessed  such  in- 
fluence over  the  superstitious  African  tribes  that  a  solitary  priest  at 
the  head  of  caravan  was  able  to  secure  a  safe  passage  of  untold  wealth 
through  the  countries  occupied  by  the  most  ferocious  savages.  The 
temples,  also,  were  a  safe  place  for  the  deposit  of  merchandise;  and 
here,  under  the  shadow  of  an  inviolable  sanctuary,  people  of  hostile 
nations  met  to  transact  their  business  in  absolute  peace  and  security. 
At  any  place  where  it  was  considered  necessary  to  have  a  commercial 
emporium  a  temple  was  built  for  its  protection. 

Whenever  the  Ethiopian  priests  became  tired  of  their  king  they  sent 
a  courier  with  orders  for  him  to  die.  Ergamenes,  who  reigned  early 
in  the  third  century  before  Christ  and  had  been  instructed  in  the  Greek 
philosophy,  resisted  this  foolish  custom,  stormed  the  fortresses  of  the 
priests,  massacred  many  of  them,  and  founded  a  new  religion. 

The  sovereigns  of  Ethiopia  were  frequently  queens.  An  Ethiopian 
queen  named  Candace  made  war  on  Augustus  Csesar  about  twenty  years 
before  the  birth  of  Christ,  and,  although  the  superior  discipline  of  the 
Romans  brought  them  an  easy  triumph,  Queen  Candace  obtained  an 
honorable  peace.  During  the  reign  of  another  Queen  Candace  the 
Jewish  religion  prevailed  in  Meroe,  as  a  result  of  the  change  made 
by  Ergamenes ;  and  the  queen's  confidential  adviser  went  to  worship 
at  Jerusalem,  and  when  he  returned,  A.  D.  53,  he  was  converted  to 
Christianity  by  St.  Philip,  and  thus  became  the  means  of  introducing 
that  religion  into  Ethiopia.  Ever  since  that  time  the  Christian  re- 
ligion has  prevailed  among  the  Ethiopians  and  their  descendants,  the 
modern  Abyssinians. 

The  pyramids  of  Meroe,  though  not  as  large  as  those  of  Middle 
Egypt,  exceed  them  in  architectural  beauty,  and  the  Ethiopian  sepul- 
chers  exhibit  the  greatest  purity  of  taste.  The  use  of  the  arch  by 
the  Ethiopians  fully  attests  their  progress  in  the  art  of  building.  Mr. 
Hoskins  has  asserted  that  the  Ethiopian  pyramids  are  more  ancient 
than  the  Egyptian,  but  this  is  disputed  by  the  best  authorities.  The 
Ethiopian  vases  depicted  on  the  monuments,  though  not  richly  orna- 
mented, exhibit  a  taste  and  elegance  of  form  that  has  never  been  sur- 
passed. In  sculpture  and  coloring,  the  edifices  of  Meroe,  though  less 
profusely  adorned,  rival  the  best  specimens  of  Egyptian  art. 

Another  famous  Ethiopian  kingdom  was  that  of  Axume,  an  offshoot 
of  Meroe.  Its  capital,  Axum,  is  still  in  existence,  and  contains  re- 


ANCIENT   ETHIOPIA. 


Ill 


markable  antiquities,  among  which  is  an  obelisk  eighty  feet  high,  in  the 
great  square,  beside  forty  others  of  smaller  size.  Some  of  the  ruins 
of  Axum  are  believed  by  the  inhabitants  to  be  as  old  as  the  time  of 
Abraham.  A  stone  slab,  eight  feet  by  three  and  a  half,  found  here, 
has  an  antique  Greek  inscription,  which,  translated,  begins  as  follows: 

"We  Aeizamus,  king  of  the  Axomites,  and  of  the  Homerites,  and 
of  Raeidan,  and  of  the  Ethiopians,  and  of  the  Sabeans,  and  of  Zeyla, 
and  of  Tiamo,  and  the  Boja,  and  of  the  Taguie,  King  of  Kings,  Son 
of  God,  etc." 

Aeizamus  was  King  of  Ethiopia  in  the  time  of  the  Roman  Emperor 
Constantine  the  Great,  who  wrote  him  a  letter.  Adulis,  the  port  of 
Axume,  was  celebrated  for  its  ivory  trade. 

All  along  the  banks  of  the  Nile  in  Nubia  are  strewn  pyramids  of 
unknown  antiquity,  ruins  of  temples  and  monuments  similar  to  those 
of  Egypt.  Near  the  present  Merawe  are  seven  or  eight  temples, 
adorned  with  sculpture  and  hieroglyphics.  One  of  these  temples  is 
four  hundred  and  fifty  by  one  hundred  and  fifty-nine  feet  in  extent. 
Near  Shendy  are  forty  pyramids. 

The  most  remarkable  of  all  the  monuments  of  Nubia  is  the  rock- 
temple  of  Ipsambul,  near  Derr.  This  temple  is  cut  from  a  mountain 
of  solid  rock,  adorned  inside  with  colossal  statues  and  painted  sculp- 
tures, representing  castles,  battles,  triumphal  processions  and  religious 
pageants.  On  the  outside  are  four  colossi,  larger  than  any  sculptured 
figures  in  Egypt,  except  the  Sphinx.  One  of  these  colossi  is  sixty- 
five  feet  high.  This  temple  is  one  hundred  and  seventy  feet  in  depth, 
and  contains  fourteen  apartments,  one  of  which  is  fifty-seven  feet  by 
fifty-two,  and  is  supported  by  images  with  folded  arms,  thirty  feet 
high.  The  rock  in  which  this  temple  is  built  is  six  hundred  feet  in 
height. 

The  great  rock-temple  of  Ipsambul  is  said  to  resemble  the  famous 
excavated  structures  on  the  island  of  Elephanta,  near  Bombay,  on  the 
west  coast  of  Hindoostan.  The  general  plan  is  the  same  in  both — 
massive  pillars,  stupendous  figures,  symbolic  devices  and  mystic  orna- 
ments. It  is  also  asserted  that  a  frequent  resemblance  is  discovered 
between  the  religious  vestiges  of  Egypt  and  Ethiopia  and  those  of 
India. 

Among  the  numerous  other  remarkable  antiquities  of  this  region 
we  must  mention  those  of  Barkal,  about  a  mile  from  the  Nile,  and 
near  the  village  of  Merawe,  the  ancient  Napata,  the  capital  of  Queen 
Candace.  Here  is  a  rock  rising  four  hundred  feet  perpendicularly 
toward  the  river,  at  the  foot  of  which  are  huge  rock-hewn  temples, 
the  walls  of  which  are  covered  with  hieroglyphics  in  high  relief,  rep- 
resenting figures  of  kings  and  gods,  among  which  we  are  able  to  dis- 


Greek 
Inciption. 


Aeiza- 
mus. 


Ruins. 


Rock 
Temple 

of  Ip- 
sambul. 


Its  Plan. 


Ruins 

of 
Barkal. 


ANCIENT   EGYPT   AND    ETHIOPIA. 


Com- 
merce of 

Meroe. 


tinguish   Isis,  Ammon,  Apis,  Horus  and  Mendes.     There   are   other 
gigantic  ruins  in  this  region. 

Meroe,  on  account  of  its  favorable  situation  for  commercial  inter- 
course with  India  and  Central  Africa,  by  its  location  on  the  intersec- 
tion of  the  leading  caravan-routes  of  ancient  commerce,  was  the  em- 
porium of  trade  between  the  north  and  the  south,  between  the  east  and 
the  west,  while  the  fertility  of  its  soil  enabled  the  Ethiopians  to  pur- 
chase luxuries  with  native  productions.  Fabrics  were  woven  in  Meroe, 
and  the  manufactures  of  metal  were  here  as  nourishing  as  in  Egypt. 

Cause  of         The  great  changes  in  the  lines  of  trade,  the  ravages  of  successive 

Ethio- 
pia's  Ex-    conquerors  and  revolutions,  the  fanaticism  of  the  Saracens,  and  the 

Unction,  ruin  of  the  fertile  soil  by  the  moving  sands  of  the  desert,  together 
with  the  pressure  of  nomadic  hordes,  all  contributed  to  the  extinction 
of  this  powerful  ancient  empire. 


«'../ 


O*""" 


20 


MAP  OF  THE 

FIRST  GREAT  EMPIRES 


B.  C.  3000  -  500 

By  I.  8.  CUre 
.SCALE  OF  MILES. 


•       M      100 

Boundary  Lines  of  Egypt  and  Ethiopia 
»           t>     »  The  Assyrian  Empire 
,,           ,,     .1    »   Babylonian,  Lydian  &  Median  Empires 
•  •           i.     it    »    Kingdom  of  David  &  Solomon 
it           ii      ii    i.   Territory  of  Carthage 
Greece  and  Her  Colonlc* 


Llgtit 
Bu« 


CHAPTER   II 
CHALDjEA,  ASSYRIA,  BABYLONIA. 


SECTION  I.—  THE  ANCIENT  TIGRIS-EUPHRATES 

VALLEY. 

ASIA,  as  we  have  noticed,  was  the  cradle  of  the  human  race.     The    Asia  the 
cradle  of  Asiatic  history  and  civilization  was  the  valley  of  the  Tigris      of^e 
and  Euphrates  rivers.     This  region  was  early  occupied  by  Semitic  and     Human 
Hamitic  tribes.     The  civilization  which  grew  up  in  the  Tigris-Eu-          ce' 
phrates  valley  was  almost  as  ancient  as  that  which  arose  in  the  Nile 
valley.     There  is  an  actual  date  in  Chaldaean  history  as  far  back  as 
2234   B.   C.  ;  while  authentic  Egyptian  history  —  the  period  of  the 
Pyramid-builders,  the  Fourth  Dynasty  —  antedates  this  date  by  only 
two  centuries,  B.  C.  2450. 

The  Hebrew  Scriptures  assign  the  beginning  of  the  history  of  the  Scrip- 
human  race  in  the  Tigris-Euphrates  valley.  Speaking  of  the  imme-  C0unt, 
diate  posterity  of  Noah  and  his  sons,  Shem,  Ham  and  Japheth,  after 
the  Deluge,  the  Book  of  Genesis  says:  "And  it  came  to  pass,  as  they 
journeyed  from  the  east,  that  they  found  a  plain  in  the  Land  of 
Shinar,  and  dwelt  there."  Shinar  was  the  southern  portion  of  the 
Tigris-Euphrates  valley.  In  this  region  the  Scriptures  place  the 
building  of  the  Tower  of  Babel,  and  the  "Confusion  of  Tongues"  and 
dispersion  of  the  human  race.  The  record  of  this  event  is  preserved 
in  the  Babylonian  tradition,  as  well  as  in  the  Mosaic  narrative  ;  and  an 
account  of  this  has  been  recently  discovered  among  the  cuneiform  in- 
scriptions on  the  Babylonian  tablets  now  in  the  British  Museum. 

The  Tigris  and  Euphrates  rivers  rise  in  the  highlands  of  Armenia      Tigris 
and  unite  near  the  head  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  into  which  their  waters  " 


empty  after  the  Euphrates  has  flowed  about  1780  miles  and  the  Tigris  Rivers. 
about  1146  miles.  Both  these  rivers,  like  the  Nile,  overflow  their  banks 
in  the  lower  part  of  their  courses;  and  though  these  inundations  do 
not  deposit  a  fresh  soil,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Nile,  they  are  the  cause 
of  the  fertility  of  the  plain  of  Mesopotamia,  and  in  ancient  times  they 
were  conducted  throughout  its  entire  extent  by  a  system  of  canals,  by 
VOL.  l.—  8  113 


114 


CHALD^BA,   ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Ancient 

Geo- 
graphical 

and 

Political 
Divisions. 


Ancient 
Empires 
in  the 
Tigris- 
Eu- 
phrates 
Valley. 


Grains 
and  Vege- 
tables of 
Chaldcea, 
or  Baby- 
lonia. 


State- 
ment of 

Herodo- 
tus. 


which  these  overflows  were  utilized  and  the  country  thus  irrigated. 
The  Tigris-Euphrates  valley  comprises  a  fertile  region  in  the  midst 
of  the  great  belt  of  desert  extending  from  the  western  shores  of  Africa 
almost  to  the  northeastern  coast  of  Asia. 

This  fertile  valley  anciently  embraced  a  number  of  territorial  and 
political  divisions,  whose  boundaries  were  often  very  indefinite.  The 
region  between  the  two  rivers  was  called  Mesopotamia  by  the  Greeks 
(from  mesos,  midst,  and  potamoi,  rivers).  This  was  merely  a  geo- 
graphical or  territorial  district,  and  not  a  political  division.  Chal- 
dsea,  or  Babylonia,  was  a  political  as  well  as  a  territorial  division, 
situated  between  the  lower  course  of  the  Tigris  on  the  east  and  Arabia 
on  the  west,  and  corresponding  to  the  geographical  region  which  the 
Hebrews  designated  as  the  Land  of  Shinar.  As  the  Persian  Gulf  in 
ancient  times  extended  about  120  or  130  miles  farther  north  than  at 
present,  ancient  Chaldasa  was  quite  a  small  section  of  country  com- 
pared with  that  region  in  our  day.  The  district  east  of  the  lower 
course  of  these  rivers,  immediately  east  of  Babylonia,  was  a  territorial 
and  political  division  called  Susiana,  or  Elam,  the  chief  city  of  which 
was  Susa.  Assyria  proper,  as  a  territorial  division,  lay  to  the  east  of 
the  Euphrates,  west  of  the  Zagros  mountains,  north  of  Susiana  and 
Chaldaea,  and  south  of  Armenia;  while  Assyria  as  a  political  power, 
or  the  Assyrian  Empire,  varied  in  territorial  extent  at  different  times, 
and  often  comprised  the  entire  region  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the 
plateau  of  Iran. 

Three  great  empires  successively  flourished  in  the  Tigris-Euphrates 
valley — the  Chaldsean,  or  Early  Babylonian  Empire,  from  2400  B.  C. 
to  1300  B.  C. ;  the  Assyrian  Empire,  from  1300  B.  C.  to  625  B.  C. ; 
and  the  Later  Babylonian  Empire,  from  625  B.  C.  to  538  B.  C. 

The  Chaldaean,  or  Early  Babylonian  Empire,  was  the  first  great 
monarchy  of  South-western  Asia.  As  we  have  seen,  its  seat  was  the 
great  alluvial  plain  lying  to  the  north-west  of  the  Persian  Gulf.  The 
population  of  this  region  increased  very  rapidly  in  the  most  ancient 
times,  because  of  the  extreme  natural  fertility  of  the  soil,  which  pro- 
duced everything  requisite  for  man's  support.  Groves  of  date-palm 
lined  the  banks  of  the  rivers,  and  such  cereal  grains  as  wheat,  barley, 
millet,  sesame  and  vetches  grew  in  luxuriant  abundance,  as  did  also 
various  other  grains.  Says  a  certain  writer:  "According  to  a  native 
tradition,  wheat  was  indigenous  in  Chaldaea.  Its  tendencies  to  grow 
leaves  was  so  great  that  the  Babylonians  used  to  mow  it  twice,  and 
then  pasture  their  cattle  on  it  for  a  while,  to  keep  down  the  blade  and 
induce  the  plant  to  turn  to  ear."  Speaking  of  this  country,  Herodotus 
says:  "Of  all  the  countries  that  we  know  of,  there  is  none  so  fruitful 
in  grain.  It  makes  no  pretension  indeed  of  growing  the  fig,  the  olive, 


THE   ANCIENT   TIGRIS-EUPHRATES  VALLEY.  ±15 

the  vine  or  any  other  tree  of  the  kind;  but  in  grain  it  is  so  fruitful 
as  to  yield  two  hundred  fold.  The  blade  of  the  wheat  plant  and  barley 
plant  is  often  three  or  four  fingers  in  breadth.  As  for  the  millet  and 
the  sesame,  I  shall  not  say  to  what  height  they  grow,  though  within 
my  own  knowledge ;  for  I  am  not  ignorant  that  what  I  have  already 
written  concerning  the  fruitfulness  of  Babylonia  must  seem  incredible 
to  those  who  have  never  visited  the  country." 

Says  another  writer:  "Babylonia,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Eu-  Another 
phrates,  rivaled  the  fertility  of  the  valley  of  the  Nile ;  the  soil  was  ment. 
so  peculiarly  suited  for  corn  that  the  husbandman's  returns  were  some- 
times three  hundred  fold,  and  rarely  less  than  two  hundred  fold.  The 
rich  oily  grains  of  the  pancium  and  sesamum  were  produced  in  luxu- 
riant abundance ;  the  fig-tree,  the  olive  and  the  vine  were  wholly  want- 
ing; but  there  were  large  groves  of  palm-trees  on  the  banks  of  the 
river.  From  the  palms  they  obtained  not  only  fruit,  but  wine,  sugar 
and  molasses,  as  the  Arabs  do  at  the  present  time.  Dwarf  cypress- 
trees  were  scattered  over  the  plains;  but  these  were  a  poor  substitute 
for  other  species  of  wood.  To  this  deficiency  of  timber  must  be  at- 
tributed the  neglect  of  the  river  navigation,  and  the  abandonment  of 
the  commerce  of  the  Indian  seas,  by  the  Babylonians." 

Chaldsea  produced  no  stone  or  minerals  of  any  kind.  The  stone  Brick  and 
used  in  building  was  brought  there  from  other  lands.  But  the  country 
yielded  an  abundant  supply  of  clay,  from  which  were  manufactured 
excellent  bricks  for  building  purposes,  while  the  wells  of  bitumen 
afforded  an  inexhaustible  amount  of  admirable  cement.  These  mate- 
rials supplied  the  place  of  wood,  stone  and  mortar.  Considering  its 
luxuriant  yield  of  cheap  and  abundant  food  and  its  never-failing  sup- 
ply of  building  material,  it  is  not  surprising  that  Chaldaea  in  primeval 
times  became  densely  populated  and  abounded  in  great  cities.  Assyria 
was  better  supplied  with  minerals  than  Chaldsea ;  good  qualities  of 
stone,  iron,  copper,  lead,  silver,  antimony  and  other  metals  existed  in 
abundance ;  while  bitumen,  naphtha,  petroleum,  sulphur,  alum  and  salt 
were  also  yielded. 

As  regards  climate,  the  winters  of  Chaldaea  are  mild,  frosts  being     Climate 
light  and  snow  unknown;  while  the  summers  are  hot  and  dry;  and        *nd 
heavy  rains  fall  in  November  and  December.     The  wild  animals  in-         of 
digenous  in  Chaldaea  were  the  lion,  the  leopard,  the  hyena,  the  lynx,  clialdaBa' 
the  wild  cat,  the  wolf,  the  jackal,  the  wild  boar,  the  buffalo,  the  stag, 
the  gazelle,  the  jerboa,  the  fox,  the  hare,  the  badger  and  the  porcupine. 
The  domestic  animals  of  the  country  were  the  camel,  the  horse,  the 
buffalo,  the  cow,  the  ox,  the  goat,  the  sheep  and  the  dog. 

The  Book  of  Genesis,  in  speaking  of  Nimrod,  "the  mighty  hunter      frxsai 
before  the  Lord,"  says :  "And  the  beginning  of  his  kingdom  was  Babel,      Cities. 


HQ  CHALD^EA,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 

and  Erech,  and  Accad,  and  Calneh,  in  the  Land  of  Shinar."  The 
southern  tetrarchy  of  four  cities  consisted  of  Ur  or  Hur,  Huruk, 
Nipur,  and  Larsa  or  Larancha,  which  are  believed  to  be  identical  with 
the  Scriptural  "  Ur  of  the  Chaldees,"  Erech,  Calneh  and  Ellasar. 
The  northern  tetrarchy  consisted  of  the  cities  of  Babel  or  Babylon, 
Borsippa,  Cutha  and  Sippara. 

Their  Ur,  or  Hur,  in  the  southern  part  of  Chaldsea,  between  the  Euphrates 

and  the  Arabian  border,  was  the  early  capital  and  metropolis  of  Chal- 
daea,  and  is  celebrated  as  the  birth-place  of  Abraham.  Its  stately 
ruins,  now  called  Mugheir  by  the  Arabs,  and  chief  among  which  are 
the  remains  of  a  great  temple,  consist  principally  of  a  series  of  low 
mounds  of  an  oval  shape  with  the  largest  diameter  running  from  north 
to  south.  Thirty  miles  north-west  of  Ur,  on  the  east  bank  of  the 
Euphrates,  are  the  ruins  of  Larsa  or  Larrak,  the  Biblical  Ellasar, 
the  Laranchse  of  Berosus,  and  the  Larissa  of  Apollodorus ;  now  called 
Senkereh  or  Sinkara.  On  the  same  side  of  the  river,  fifteen  miles 
north-west  of  Larsa,  are  the  ruins  of  Huruk,  the  Scriptural  Erech  and 
the  Greek  Orchoe,  called  by  the  present  natives  Urka  or  Warka,  and 
celebrated  for  the  ruins  of  its  massive  temple.  Sixty-five  miles  north- 
west of  Warka,  thirty  miles  east  of  the  Euphrates,  are  the  ruins  of 
Nipur,  called  Calneh  by  Moses,  and  Niffer  by  the  present  inhabitants. 
About  sixty  miles  from  Niffer,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Euphrates,  are 
the  remains  of  the  ancient  Borsippa,  chiefly  its  temple,  whose  modern 
name  is  Birs-i-Nimrud.  Fifteen  miles  north-west,  on  both  banks  of  the 
Euphrates,  are  the  ruins  of  "Babylon  the  Great,"  which  cover  a  space 
three  miles  long  by  between  one  and  two  miles  wide,  and  which  con- 
sist of  three  mounds  now  called  Babil,  Kasr  and  Amram  by  the  Arabs. 
The  ancient  Sippara,  the  Scriptural  Sepharvaim,  was  twenty  miles 
north-west  of  Babylon,  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Euphrates,  and  is 
now  called  Sura.  Dur-Kurri-galzu,  now  called  Akkerkuf,  on  the 
Saklawiyeh  canal,  was  six  miles  from  the  site  of  the  present  Bagdad. 
About  twenty  miles  north-east  of  Babylon  was  Cutha,  now  Ibrahim. 
Bii,  or  Ahava,  was  the  modern  Hit,  about  one  hundred  and  twenty 
miles  north-west  of  Babylon,  on  the  Euphrates.  Chilmad  was  the 
present  Kalwadha,  near  Bagdad.  Rubesi  was  probably  Zerghul. 
There  were  a  large  number  of  smaller  cities  in  every  part  of  Chaldasa, 
of  which  nothing  is  known. 

Grains  Assyria,  as  we  have  seen,  embraced  the  portion  of  the  Tigris-Eu- 
tablesoT  phrates  valley  north  of  Chaldaea,  or  Babylonia — the  region  now  known 
Assyria,  as  Kurdistan.  The  soil  of  Assyria  was  not  so  fertile  as  that  of  Chal- 
daea,  but  was  generally  productive ;  and  careful  cultivation  and  irriga- 
tion brought  luxuriant  yields  of  various  grains  and  vegetables;  while 
such  fruits  as  the  citron,  the  orange,  the  lemon,  the  date-palm,  the 


THE    ANCIENT   TIGRIS-EUPHRATES    VALLEY. 


117 


pomegranate,  the  olive,  the  vine,  the  fig  and  the  apricot  flourished  in 
profusion,  and  the  mulberry  gave  nourishment  to  an  unusually  large 
silk-worm  found  nowhere  else;  but  ever  since  the  fall  of  the  Assyrian 
Empire  the  country  has  been  exposed  to  the  ravages  of  plundering 
nomad  hordes  and  to  the  devastations  of  hostile  armies,  so  that  this 
region  is  now  almost  a  wilderness. 

Unlike  Chaldaea,  which,  as  we  have  observed,  produced  no  stone  or 
minerals  of  any  kind,  Assyria  was  supplied  with  an  abundance  of  stone, 
iron,  copper,  lead,  silver,  antimony  and  other  metals;  while  bitumen, 
naphtha,  petroleum,  sulphur,  alum  and  salt  were  also  yielded  in  suffi- 
cient quantities. 

Assyria  has  a  varied  climate,  but  on  the  whole  the  summers  are 
cooler  and  the  winters  more  severe  than  in  Chaldsea,  because  of  moun- 
tain breezes  from  the  Zagros  and  from  Armenia;  while  there  is  also 
more  moisture,  and  in  portions  of  the  country  heavy  rains,  snows  and 
dews  fall  during  the  winter  and  spring. 

The  wild  animals  of  Assyria  were  the  lion,  the  leopard,  the  lynx, 
the  hyena,  the  jackal,  the  ibex,  the  gazelle,  the  jerboa,  the  bear,  the 
deer,  the  wolf,  the  stag,  the  buffalo,  the  beaver,  the  fox,  the  hare,  the 
badger,  the  porcupine,  the  wild  cat,  the  wild  boar,  the  wild  sheep  and 
the  wild  ass.  The  rivers  abounded  with  fish,  and  the  marshy  thickets 
with  wild  fowl.  The  domestic  animals  were  the  camel,  the  horse,  the 
ass,  the  mule,  the  ox,  the  cow,  the  sheep,  the  goat  and  the  dog. 

The  true  heart  of  Assyria  was  the  country  close  along  the  Tigris 
between  latitude  thirty-five  degrees  and  thirty-six  degrees  and  thirty 
minutes  north.  Within  these  limits  were  the  four  great  cities  marked 
by  the  mounds  of  Khorsabad,  Mosul,  Nimrud  and  Kileh-Sherghat, 
besides  a  multitude  of  cities  of  minor  importance.  Three  of  the  four 
great  capitals  of  the  Assyrian  Empire  were  located  on  the  east  bank 
of  the  river ;  but  the  early  capital,  Asshur,  now  called  Kileh-Sherghat, 
was  on  the  west  bank.  The  Assyrian  ruins  strew  the  country  between 
the  Tigris  and  the  Khabour.  Mounds  exist  along  the  Khabour's  great 
western  affluent,  and  even  near  Seruj,  in  the  country  between  Harran 
and  the  Euphrates.  But  the  remains  on  the  east  side  of  the  Tigris 
are  more  extensive  and  more  important.  Nebbi-Yunus,  Koyunjik  and 
Nimrud — which  have  furnished  by  far  the  most  valuable  and  interest- 
ing of  the  Assyrian  monuments — are  all  situated  on  the  east  side  of 
the  Tigris,  while  the  only  places  on  the  west  side  which  have  yielded 
striking  relics  are  Arban  and  Kileh-Sherghat. 

In  Assyria,  as  in  Chaldaea,  four  cities  were  in  early  times  preemi- 
nent. The  Book  of  Genesis  in  speaking  of  the  Assyrian  emigration 
from  Chaldaea,  or  the  Land  of  Shinar,  says:  "Out  of  that  land  went 
forth  Asshur,  and  builded  Nineveh,  and  the  city  Rehoboth,  and  Calah 


Minerals 

of 
Assyria. 


Climate 

of 
Assyria. 


Animals 

of 
Assyria. 


Assyrian 
Sites. 


Assyrian 
Cities. 


CHAIJXEA,   ASSYRIA,   BABYLONIA. 

and  Resen."  In  the  flourishing  period  of  the  Assyrian  Empire  we 
find  four  cities — Nineveh  (or  Ninua),  Calah,  Asshur  and  Dur-Sargina 
(or  City  of  Sargon) — all  of  which  were  cities  of  the  first  rank.  Be- 
sides these  four  capitals,  there  were  a  vast  number  of  minor  cities  and 
towns,  so  numerous  that  the  whole  country  is  strewn  with  their  ruins. 
Among  these  minor  places  were  Tarbisa,  Arbil  (or  Arbela),  Arapkha 
and  Khazeh,  in  the  region  between  the  Tigris  and  the  Zagros  moun- 
tains, the  ancient  Assyria  proper  and  the  modern  Kurdistan ;  and  Har- 
ran,  Tel-Apni,  Razappa  (or  Rezeph)  and  Amida  in  the  North-west; 
Nazibina  (or  Nisibis),  on  the  eastern  branch  of  the  Khabour;  Sirki 
(or  Circesium),  at  the  confluence  of  the  Khabour  with  the  Euphrates; 
Anat  on  the  Euphrates,  a  little  below  the  junction;  Tahiti,  Margarisi, 
Sidikan,  Katni,  Beth-Khalupi,  and  others  between  the  lower  course  of 
the  Khabour  and  the  Tigris. 

Their  Qn  the  east  bank  of  the  Tigris,  opposite  the  present  town  of  Mosul, 

are  the  ruins  of  the  once-mighty  city  of  Nineveh,  the  celebrated  and 
magnificent  capital  of  the  Assyrian  Empire  when  that  monarchy  was 
in  the  zenith  of  its  greatness  and  splendor.  The  name  Nineveh  is  read 
on  the  bricks,  and  a  uniform  tradition  from  the  time  of  the  Arab  con- 
quest gives  the  mound  this  title.  These  are  the  most  extensive  ruins 
of  Assyria.  As  the  city  will  be  described  in  a  subsequent  part  of  this 
book,  we  will  not  enter  into  any  minute  description  of  the  place  in  this 
connection.  At  the  present  town  of  Khorsabad,  on  the  east  bank  of 
the  Tigris,  about  nine  miles  north  of  Nineveh,  are  the  ruins  of  Dur- 
Sargina  (City  of  Sargon),  chief  of  which  are  those  of  the  magnificent 
palace  erected  there  by  the  famous  Sargon,  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
of  Assyrian  monarchs.  These  ruins  were  brought  to  light  in  recent 
years  by  the  excavations  of  that  enterprising  French  explorer,  M. 
Botta.  The  present  town  of  Nimrud,  on  the  east  side  of  the  Tigris, 
about  twenty  miles  south  of  the  ruins  of  Nineveh  in  a  direct  line,  and 
about  thirty  miles  by  the  course  of  the  Tigris,  occupies  the  site  of 
the  ancient  Calah,  the  second  great  Assyrian  capital  city,  whose  ruins, 
among  which  are  those  of  several  royal  palaces,  cover  an  area  of 
nearly  one  thousand  English  acres,  which  is  little  over  half  the  area 
of  the  ruins  of  Nineveh.  Forty  miles  south  of  Nimrud,  at  Kileh- 
Sherghat,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Tigris,  are  the  remains  of  the 
ancient  city  of  Asshur,  the  third  great  city  and  the  early  Assyrian 
capital,  whose  ruins,  marked  by  long  lines  of  low  mounds,  are  scarcely 
less  in  extent  than  those  of  the  renowned  Calah.  Four  miles  north- 
west from  Khorsabad  are  the  ruins  of  Tarbisa,  among  which  are  those 
of  a  royal  palace  and  several  temples.  About  twenty  miles  south-e^st 
of  Khorsabad  is  the  ruin  of  Keremles.  About  halfway  between  the 
ruins  of  Nineveh  and  Nimrud,  or  Calah,  is  Selamiyah,  supposed  by 


THE   ANCIENT   TIGRIS-EUPHRATES   VALLEY. 


119 


some  to  be  the  Resen  of  Scripture.  About  forty  miles  east  of  Nimrud 
was  the  famous  city  of  Arabil,  or  Arbil,  called  Arbela  by  the  Greeks, 
and  still  retaining  its  ancient  designation.  Besides  these  principal 
towns  of  Assyria  proper,  the  inscriptions  mention  a  large  number  of 
cities  whose  site  is  not  known. 

The  wonderful  discoveries  made  in  this  field  of  ancient  Oriental  his- 
tory within  the  last  three  quarters  of  a  century  by  the  patience  and 
diligence  of  such  renowned  explorers  as  Layard  and  Botta,  and  later 
by  the  eminent  English  Orientalists,  Sayce  and  George  Smith,  and  in 
the  last  few  years  by  the  truly  remarkable  discoveries  of  the  renowned 
German  American  explorer  and  archaeologist,  Dr.  Hilprecht,  at  the  site 
of  the  old  Chaldsean  city  of  Nipur,  have  almost  recast  the  entire  his- 
tory of  these  ancient  Oriental  monarchies  and  have  revealed  the  remote 
antiquity  of  this  old  civilization  and  the  early  history  of  mankind. 

Babylonia  proper  being  almost  identical  in  its  situation  and  terri- 
torial extent  with  the  old  kingdom  of  Chaldaea,  it  need  not  be  described 
here.  It  was  located  wholly  west  of  the  Tigris,  and  consisted  of  two 
"vast  plains,  or  flats,  one  situated  between  the  two  rivers  (the  Tigris 
and  the  Euphrates),  and  thus  forming  the  lower  portion  of  the  Meso- 
potamia of  the  Greeks  and  Romans — the  other  interposed  between  the 
Euphrates  and  Arabia,  a  long  but  narrow  strip  along  the  right  bank 
of  that  abounding  river."  In  area  it  was  smaller  than  Scotland  or  Ire- 
land. The  country  east  of  the  Tigris  constituted  no  portion  of  Baby- 
lonia proper,  but  was  Cissia,  or  Susiana — a  separate  country  called 
Elam  by  the  Jews — and  was  occupied  by  an  Aryan  people.  The 
cities  of  Babylonia  have  been  mentioned  in  connection  with  Chaldaea. 

The  small  kingdom  of  Babylonia  suddenly  became  the  mistress  of 
an  extensive  empire  in  the  latter  half  of  the  seventh  century  before 
Christ.  When  Media  and  Babylonia  overthrew  Assyria  in  B.  C.  625, 
they  divided  the  Assyrian  Empire  between  them,  as  already  related. 
Babylonia  obtained  all  that  part  of  the  Assyrian  dominions  west  of 
the  Tigris  and  south  of  Armenia,  along  with  Elam,  or  Susiana,  east 
of  the  Lower  Tigris.  Thus  the  countries  included  within  the  Later 
Babylonian  Empire,  besides  Babylonia  proper,  the  heart  of  the  em- 
pire, were  Elam  (Elymais),  or  Susiana  (Cissia),  Mesopotamia  proper, 
Cilicia,  Syria,  Phoenicia,  Palestine,  Edom,  Northern  Arabia  and  part 
of  Egypt.  There  was  a  great  variety  of  climate  and  productions  in 
this  vast  domain. 

The  soil  and  climate,  products  and  animals  of  Babylonia  have  been 
mentioned  and  described  in  our  account  of  Chaldaea.  The  exceeding 
fertility  of  its  soil,  which  so  richly  rewarded  the  labors  of  the  husband- 
man, have  there  been  noted.  The  testimony  of  Herodotus  in  that  par- 
ticular was  sustained  by  Theophrastus,  Strabo  and  Pliny,  and  also  by 


Recent 
Dis- 
coveries. 


Baby- 
lonia, or 

Chaldaea. 


Extent 
of  the 
Baby- 
lonian 

Empire. 


Grains, 

Fruits 

and 

Animals 
of  Baby- 
lonia. 


1*0 


CHALD^EA,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Products 

of 

Susiana, 
Mesopo- 
tamia and 
Northern 
Syria. 


Products 

of 

Southern 
Syria  and 
Palestine. 


Minerals 
of  the 
Baby- 
lonian 

Empire. 


Berosus,  who  said:  "The  land  of  the  Babylonians  produces  wheat  a$ 
an  indigenous  plant,  and  has  also  barley,  and  lentils,  and  vetches,  and 
sesame ;  the  banks  of  the  streams  and  the  marshes  supply  edible  roots, 
called  gongce,  which  have  the  taste  of  barley  cakes.  Palms,  too,  grow 
in  the  country,  and  apples,  and  fruit-trees  of  various  kinds."  The 
chief  article  of  food  for  the  great  mass  of  the  people  in  Babylonia,  as 
in  Egypt,  was  the  date-palm,  which  flourished  in  luxuriant  abundance. 

The  products  of  Susiana  were  mainly  the  same  as  those  of  Baby- 
lonia proper ;  the  date-palm,  wheat  and  barley  growing  in  abundance. 
The  palm-tree  also  furnished  building  timber.  The  modern  Khusistan, 
the  ancient  Susiana,  produces  all  the  fruits  which  thrive  in  Persia. 
In  Northern  Mesopotamia  are  found  the  walnut,  the  vine  and  pista- 
chio-nut, while  good  crops  of  grain,  oranges,  pomegranates,  and  the 
ordinary  fruits  are  grown.  In  Northern  Syria  all  kinds  of  trees  and 
shrubs  grow  in  luxuriance,  while  the  pasture  is  excellent,  and  much 
of  the  land  is  adapted  to  the  growth  of  cotton.  Here  the  Assyrian 
kings  frequently  obtained  timber  for  building  purposes,  and  here  are 
yet  found  dense  forests  of  oak,  pine,  ilex,  walnuts,  willows,  poplars, 
ash-trees,  birches,  larches  and  locust-trees.  Such  wild  shrubs  as  the 
oleander,  the  myrtle,  the  bay,  the  arbutus,  the  clematis,  the  juniper, 
and  the  honeysuckle  abound;  and  such  cultivated  fruit-trees  as  the 
orange,  the  pomegranate,  the  pistachio-nut,  the  vine,  the  olive  and  the 
mulberry  also  thrive.  The  adis,  an  excellent  pea,  and  the  Lycoperdon, 
or  wild  potato,  grow  in  the  vicinity  of  Aleppo.  The  castor-oil  plant  is 
cultivated  in  the  plain  of  Edib.  Melons,  cucumbers  and  most  of  the 
common  vegetables  flourish  in  abundance  all  over  Syria. 

In  Southern  Syria  and  Palestine  most  of  the  same  vegetable  produc- 
tions occur.  The  date-palm  flourishes  in  Syria  as  far  as  Beyreut,  and 
formerly  thrived  in  Palestine.  The  banana  is  also  found  on  the  Syrian 
coast.  The  fig-mulberry,  or  true  sycamore,  also  thrives  in  Southern 
Syria,  as  do  the  jujube,  the  tamarisk,  the  wild  olive,  the  gum-sty  rax 
plant,  the  egg-plant,  the  Egyptian  papyrus,  the  sugar-cane,  the  scar- 
let mistletoe,  the  liquorice  plant,  the  yellow-flowered  acacia,  and  the 
solanum  that  produces  the  "Dead  Sea  apple."  Here  also  flourishes 
the  celebrated  cedar  of  Lebanon,  several  oaks  and  junipers,  the  maple, 
the  mulberry,  the  berberry,  the  jessamine,  the  ivy,  the  butcher's  broom, 
a  rhododendron,  and  the  gum-tragacanth  plant.  The  same  fruits 
flourish  in  Southern  Syria  that  thrive  in  the  North,  with  the  addition 
of  dates,  lemons,  almonds,  shaddocks  and  limes. 

/  The  principal  mineral  products  of  the  Babylonian  Empire  were  bitu- 
men, with  its  concomitants,  naphtha  and  petroleum,  salt,  sulphur,  nitre, 
copper,  iron,  perhaps  silver,  and  several  kinds  of  precious  stones.  The 
springs  of  Hit,  or  Is,  were  famous  in  the  time  of  Herodotus  for  their 


THE    ANCIENT   TIGRIS-EUPHRATES   VALLEY. 


121 


great  abundance  of  bitumen,  which  was  likewise  procured  from  Arder- 
icca  (now  Kir-Ab),  and  probably  from  Ram  Ormuz,  in  Susiana,  and 
also  from  the  Dead  Sea,  in  Palestine.  Salt  was  procured  from  the 
various  lakes  without  outlets,  especially  from  the  Sabakhah,  the  Bahr- 
el-Melak,  the  Dead  Sea,  and  a  small  lake  near  Tadmor,  or  Palmyra. 
The  Dead  Sea  perhaps  also  furnished  sulphur  and  nitre.  The  hills 
of  Palestine  yielded  copper  and  iron.  Silver  was  probably  found  in 
Anti-Lebanon.  Gems  and  precious  stones  were  most  probably  pro- 
cured from  Susiana,  and  from  Syria  and  Phoenicia.  Among  these 
precious  stones  were  agates  from  Susiana,  amethysts  from  Petra,  ala- 
baster from  near  Damascus,  cyanus  from  Phoenicia,  and  gems  found 
in  the  cylinder-seals,  such  as  cornelian,  rock-crystal,  chalcedony,  onyx, 
jasper,  quartz,  serpentine,  syenite,  haematite,  green  felspar,  pyrites, 
loadstone  and  amazon-stone,  from  the  various  provinces. 

Building  stone  did  not  exist  in  Babylonia  and  the  alluvial  districts 
of  Susiana ;  but  abounded  in  other  parts  of  the  empire,  being  plentiful 
in  the  Euphrates  valley  above  Hit,  in  the  mountain  regions  of  Susiana, 
and  in  Syria,  Palestine  and  Phoenicia.  Near  to  Babylonia  was  lime- 
stone. In  the  vicinity  of  Haddisah,  on  the  Euphrates,  was  a  silicious 
rock  alternating  with  iron-stone,  and  in  the  Arabian  desert  were  sand- 
stone and  granite.  The  stone  used  in  the  Babylonian  cities  was  con- 
veyed down  the  Euphrates,  or  transported  by  canals  from  the  neigh- 
boring districts  of  Arabia.  But  the  inexhaustible  supply  of  clay  fur- 
nished by  their  own  country  caused  the  Babylonians  to  prefer  brick 
almost  exclusively  for  building  purposes. 

The  principal  wild  animals  of  the  Babylonian  Empire  were  the  lion, 
the  panther,  or  large  leopard,  the  hunting  leopard,  the  bear,  the  hyena, 
the  wild  ox,  the  buffalo,  the  wild  ass,  the  stag,  the  antelope,  the  ibex, 
or  wild  goat,  the  wild  sheep,  the  wild  boar,  the  wolf,  the  jackal,  the  fox, 
the  hare  and  the  rabbit.  Other  wild  animals  were  the  lynx,  the  wild 
cat,  the  ratel,  the  sable,  the  genet,  the  badger,  the  otter,  the  beaver, 
the  polecat,  the  jerboa,  the  rat,  the  mouse,  the  marmot,  the  porcupine, 
the  squirrel  and  the  alligator.  Great  varieties  of  birds,  including 
eagles,  vultures,  falcons,  owls,  hawks,  crows,  and  many  kinds  of  small 
birds,  abounded.  Reptiles  of  many  varieties  prevailed.  Fish 
abounded  in  the  Chaldaean  marshes  and  in  most  of  the  fresh-water  lakes 
and  rivers.  The  domestic  animals  were  the  camel,  the  horse,  the  mule, 
the  ass,  the  cow,  the  ox,  the  goat,  the  sheep  and  the  dog. 

The  summer  heat  in  Babylonia  proper,  or  Chaldasa,  in  Susiana,  or 
Elam,  in  Philistia  and  in  Edom  was  intense,  but  the  winters  here  were 
short  and  mild.  In  Susiana  the  cool  breezes  from  the  Zagros  moun- 
tains somewhat  modified  the  heat ;  while  in  Babylonia  the  sirocco,  or  hot 
wind,  from  the  Arabian  desert  was  at  times  oppressive.  In  Central 


Building 
Ston«. 


Animals 
of  the 
Baby- 
lonian 

Empire. 


Climate 
of  the 
Baby- 
lonian 

Empire. 


122 


CHALD^A,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Adjacent 
Countries. 


Great 
Cities  of 
the  Baby- 
lonian 
Empire. 


Mesopotamia,  in  the  Euphrates  valley,  in  Syria,  Palestine  and  Phoeni- 
cia, the  winters  were  longer  and  colder,  but  the  summer  heat  was  less 
oppressive.  In  the  northern  portion  of  the  empire,  along  the  flanks 
of  the  Masius,  the  Taurus  and  the  Amanus,  the  climate  was  like  that 
of  Media,  the  summers  being  milder,  but  the  winters  intensely  severe. 
Thus  a  variety  of  climate  existed  in  the  Babylonian  Empire ;  although 
the  region  as  a  whole  was  the  hottest  and  dryest  outside  the  tropics, 
because  of  the  close  proximity  of  the  great  Arabian  desert,  the  small- 
ness  of  the  neighboring  seas,  the  absence  of  mountains,  and  the  scarcity 
of  timber. 

On  the  east  and  north  the  Babylonian  Empire  was  bounded  by  the 
territories  of  the  great  Median  Empire,  including  Persia  and  Media 
on  the  east,  and  Armenia  and  Cappadocia  on  the  north.  On  the  south 
lay  the  desert  land  of  Arabia,  and  on  the  west  was  the  Mediterranean 


sea. 


The  great  cities  of  the  empire  outside  of  Babylonia  itself  were 
Jerusalem  and  Samaria  in  Palestine;  Tyre  and  Sidon  in  Phoenicia; 
Damascus  and  Tadmor  in  Syria;  Carchemish,  in  the  land  of  the  Hit- 
tites,  on  the  Euphrates;  Ashdod,  Ascalon,  Ekron  and  Gaza  in  Philis- 
tia;  and  Susa  in  Susiana,  or  Elam. 


Berosus. 


Hebrew 

and 

Greek 

Sources. 


Modern 

Re- 
searches. 


SECTION  II.— SOURCES  OF  CHALDEE-ASSYRO-BABY- 
LONIAN  HISTORY. 

REGARDING  the  great  antiquity  of  Chaldsea  we  have  the  authority 
of  Berosus,  the  native  Babylonian  historian,  who  was  a  priest  of  Bel 
at  Babylon,  and  flourished  during  the  first  half  of  the  third  century 
B.  C.  Soon  after  Alexander  the  Great  took  Babylon,  Berosus  wrote 
a  History  of  Chaldcea  in  Greek,  in  three  books,  and  dedicated  the  work 
to  Antiochus,  King  of  Syria.  Unfortunately  this  work  has  been  lost, 
excepting  a  few  fragments  which  were  copied  by  Apollodorus  and 
Polyhistor,  two  Greek  writers  of  the  first  century  before  Christ,  and 
these  fragments  were  afterwards  quoted  by  Eusebius  and  Syncellus, 
and  from  them  we  learn  the  Babylonian  historian's  account  of  his 
country's  annals.  Other  ancient  sources  of  Chaldasan,  Assyrian  and 
Babylonian  history  are  the  Old  Testament  and  the  writings  of  the 
Greek  historians,  Herodotus,  Ctesias  and  Diodorus  Siculus. 

As  in  the  case  of  Egypt,  our  knowledge  of  the  history  of  the  three 
great  successive  empires  in  the  Tigris-Euphrates  valley  has  been  vastly 
enlarged  through  the  diligent  research  of  modern  historians,  anti- 
quarians and  Orientalists.  By  the  diligence  of  the  great  explorers, 
beginning  with  Layard  over  half  a  century  ago,  Nineveh,  Babylon 


SOURCES   OF    CHALDEE-ASSYRO-BABYLONIAN    HISTORY. 


123 


and  the  buried  cities  of  the  plain  have  been  excavated;  their  temples 
and  palaces  have  been  exposed  to  view;  the  mysterious  inscriptions  in 
the  cuneiform,  or  wedge-shaped  and  arrow-headed  characters,  which 
were  discovered  on  the  slabs  that  lined  the  insides  of  the  palaces  and 
temples,  have,  by  a  grand  triumph  of  modern  scholarship,  been  de- 
ciphered, so  that  a  new  flood  of  light  has  been  shed  upon  the  dark- 
ness of  these  famous  ancient  monarchies.  Specimens  of  the  cuneiform 
inscriptions  have  been  published  in  the  British  Museum  Series,  edited 
by  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson  and  Mr.  E.  Norris.  Many  of  these  inscrip- 
tions have  been  deciphered  by  M.  Oppert,  the  French  Orientalist. 
The  evidence  of  both  classical  writers  and  the  monumental  inscrip- 
tions shows  that  the  Chaldarans,  Assyrians  and  Later  Babylonians  paid 
great  attention  to  chronology.  The  Canon  of  Ptolemy,  which  con- 
tained an  exact  Babylonian  computation  of  time  from  747  B.  C.  to 
331  B.  C.,  is  generally  credited  as  a  most  authentic  document.  The 
Assyrian  Canon,  discovered  by  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson,  and  consisting 
of  a  number  of  clay  tablets,  contains  a  complete  system  of  Assyrian 
chronology  from  911  B.  C.  to  660  B.  C.,  verified  by  the  record  of  a 
solar  eclipse  which  must  have  occurred  June  15,  763  B.  C. ;  and  is 
regarded  as  equally  reliable.  Among  the  eminent  modern  writers  on 
these  ancient  Oriental  monarchies  are  the  English  historians,  George 
Rawlinson  and  P.  Smith,  and  the  renowned  German  historians  and 
Orientalists,  Niebuhr,  Bunsen  and  Duncker. 

Our  sources  of  Assyrian  history  are  the  Greek  historians,  Herodotus 
and  Ctesias,  and  the  Assyrian  monumental  inscriptions.  Little  reli- 
ance can  be  placed  upon  exact  dates  relating  to  the  annals  of  most  of 
the  very  ancient  nations.  With  Assyrian  chronology,  however,  we  can 
depend  upon  the  accuracy  of  the  two  trustworthy  documents  already 
alluded  to — the  Canon  of  Ptolemy,  a  Babylonian  record  having  impor- 
tant bearing  upon  Assyrian  dates,  and  the  Assyrian  Canon,  discovered 
and  edited  by  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson  in  1862,  and  which  gives  the  suc- 
cession of  the  Assyrian  kings  for  251  years,  beginning  with  the  year 
911  B.  C.  and  ending  660  B.  C.  These  two  documents  not  only  har- 
monize remarkably  with  each  other,  but  they  agree  admirably  with 
statements  of  Berosus  and  Herodotus.  According  to  Berosus,  Assyria 
became  independent  of  Chaldsea  about  1300  B.  C.,  and  according  to 
Herodotus  half  a  century  later,  about  the  year  1250  B.  C.  From 
these  sources,  and  from  the  inscriptions  on  Assyrian  tablets,  bricks  and 
sculptures,  we  are  able  to  fix  the  dates  of  Assyrian  events  with  toler- 
able accuracy. 

With  respect  to  the  duration  and  antiquity  of  the  Assyrian  mon- 
archy, the  two  original  authorities  are  the  Greek  historians  alluded 
to  at  the  beginning  of  the  preceding  paragraph,  and  between  these 
1  1 


Cunei- 
form In- 
scriptions 


Canon  of 
Ptolemy. 


Assyrian 
Canon. 


Modern 

His- 
torians. 


Greek  His- 
torians 

and 

Assyrian 
Monu- 
mental 
Inscrip- 
tions. 

The 
Canons. 


Assyrian 
Dates. 


Herodotus 

and 
Ctesias. 


124 


CHALD^EA,   ASSYRIA,   BABYLONIA. 


Their 
Respec- 
tive Fol- 
lowers. 


Reliabili- 
ty of  He- 
rodotus. 


Unre- 
liability 

ofCtesias. 


Chronol- 
ogy of 
Herodo- 
tus 


two  the  judgment  of  the  learned  has  since  been  divided.  Ctesias 
maintained  that  the  Assyrian  monarchy  had  an  existence  of  1306  or 
1860  years,  and  that  it  had  almost  as  remote  an  antiquity  as  had  the 
city  of  Babylon;  while  Herodotus  asserted  that  the  Assyrian  Empire 
had  a  duration  of  less  than  seven  centuries,  beginning  about  the  year 
B.  C.  1250,  when  a  flourishing  Empire  had  already  existed  in  Chal- 
daa  for  more  than  a  thousand  years  from  the  time  of  Nimrod.  Ctesias 
was  followed  by  such  writers  as  Cephalion,  Castor,  Diodorus  Siculus, 
Nicolas  of  Damascus,  Trogus  Pompeius,  Agathias,  Syncellus,  Velleius 
Paterculus,  Josephus,  Eusebius,  and  Moses  of  Chorene,  among  the 
ancients,  and  by  Freret,  Rollin  and  Clinton,  among  the  moderns. 
Herodotus  has  been  sustained  by  such  modern  writers  as  Volney, 
Heeren,  B.  G.  Niebuhr,  Brandis,  the  two  Rawlinsons  and  many  others. 
The  English  historians  and  Orientalists  consider  the  Assyrian  Empire 
as  having  ended  in  625  B.  C.,  while  the  French  regard  the  year  606 
B.  C.  as  the  date  of  that  event. 

Herodotus  wrote  within  two  centuries  after  the  fall  of  the  Assyrian 
Empire,  and  about  thirty  years  before  Ctesias.  He  had  traveled  ex- 
tensively in  the  East,  as  well  as  in  Egypt,  and  had  availed  himself  of 
all  the  accessible  sources  of  information,  consulting  the  Chaldseans  of 
Babylon  and  others.  He  was  thoroughly  honest  and  conscientious, 
and  implicit  jeliance  can  be  placed  in  the  accuracy  of  his  statements. 
He  had  especially  endeavored  to  inform  himself  fully  and  correctly 
regarding  Assyria,  of  which  country  he  designed  writing  an  elaborate 
work  entirely  distinct  from  his  general  history. 

Ctesias  also  visited  the  East,  spending  seventeen  years  at  the  court 
of  the  Persian  king.  Being  the  court-physician  to  Artaxerxes  Mne- 
mon,  he  may  have  had  access  to  the  archives  in  the  possession  of  the 
Persian  monarchs.  He  was  a  man  of  such  temper  and  spirit  as  to  be 
disposed  to  differ  with  others.  He  flatly  called  Herodotus  "a  liar," 
and  was  therefore  resolved  to  differ  with  him.  He  continually  differs 
with  Thucydides  wherever  they  handle  the  same  subject.  He  perpet- 
ually disagrees  with  Ptolemy  on  Babylonian  chronology,  and  with 
Manetho  on  Egyptian  dates.  He  is  also  constantly  at  variance  with 
the  cuneiform  inscriptions,  which  generally  confirm  the  statements  of 
Herodotus.  His  Oriental  history  likewise  contradicts  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, as  he  places  the  destruction  of  Nineveh  at  875  B.  C.,  long  before 
the  time  of  Jonah.  The  judgment  of  Aristotle,  of  Plutarch,  of  Ar- 
rian,  among  the  ancients,  and  of  Niebuhr,  Bunsen  and  other  modern 
historians  and  Orientalists,  is  all  on  the  side  of  Herodotus,  whose  chron- 
ology is  to  be  preferred,  on  every  account,  to  that  of  Ctesias. 

Herodotus  assigns  the  year  B.  C.  1250  as  the  beginning  of  the  As- 
syrian Empire,  which,  according  to  his  account,  lasted  six  and  a  half 


CHALDEAN,   OR    EARLY    BABYLONIAN    EMPIRE. 


126 


Chronol- 
ogy of 

Berosus. 


centuries.  During  the  first  five  hundred  and  twenty  years  of  this 
period,  from  B.  C.  1250,  to  B.  C.  730,  the  Assyrians  maintained  their 
supremacy  over  Western  Asia,  after  which  the  Medes  revolted  and 
formed  an  independent  kingdom  east  of  the  Zagros  mountains.  The 
Assyrian  monarchy,  thus  reduced,  lasted  one  hundred  and  thirty  years 
longer,  to  the  close  of  the  seventh  century  before  the  Christian  era, 
when  the  Medes  took  and  destroyed  Nineveh  (B.  C.  603).  These 
dates,  though  nearer  the  truth  than  those  of  Ctesias,  are  not  abso- 
lutely accepted  by  modern  historians  and  Orientalists. 

The  chronology  of  Berosus  coincides  more  nearly  with  that  of 
Herodotus  than  with  that  of  Ctesias.  As  his  sixth  Chaldaean,  or  Baby- 
lonian dynasty,  which  was  Assyrian  in  race,  began  to  reign  about  1300 
B.  C.,  and  as  the  Assyrian  monarchy  became  independent  when  this 
dynasty  was  founded,  it  follows  that  the  foundation  of  the  Assyrian 
Empire  dates  from  that  year.  As  Berosus  also  placed  the  fall  of  the 
Assyrian  Empire  at  625  B.  C.,  that  empire  must  have  existed  six 
hundred  and  seventy-five  years. 

Within  the  last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century  a  number  of  Eng- 
lish and  French  Orientalists  had  discovered  interesting  remains  of 
ancient  Chaldaean  and  Assyrian  civilization,  the  most  prominent  among 
the  English  Assyriologists  and  antiquarians  being  Mr.  Sayce  and  Mr. 
George  Smith,  who,  by  deciphering  some  cuneiform  tablets,  had  dis- 
covered many  new  and  interesting  facts  regarding  the  Chaldaean  and 
Assyrian  cosmogony. 

In  recent  years  the  several  Babylonian  expeditions  of  the  Univer-  Hilprecht 
sity  of  Pennsylvania,  under  the  charge  of  Dr.  Herman  Volrath  Hil- 
precht, have  made  a  series  of  important  discoveries  by  excavations  at 
the  site  of  Nipur,  unearthing  about  twenty-three  thousand  tablets,  and 
uncovering  the  remains  of  a  dozen  cities,  thus  revealing  to  us  the 
remote  antiquity  of  Chaldaean  civilization,  which  appears  to  have  ex- 
isted about  six  thousand  years  before  Christ,  or  eight  thousand  years 
before  the  present  time. 


Recent 
Dis- 
coveries. 


SECTION  HI.— CHALDEAN,  OR  EARLY  BABYLONIAN 

EMPIRE. 

THE  Chaldaeans  were  a  Semitic  and  Hamitic  race,  and  their  origin  Antiquity 
is  involved  in  the  obscurity  of  an  unknown  antiquity.  The  Chaldaean 
monarchy  probably  began  about  2400  B.  C.,  as  we  have  an  account 
of  astronomical  observations  dating  back  to  2234  B.  C.  Berosus  as- 
signs nine  dynasties  to  Chaldaea  and  Babylonia  from  the  Deluge  to  the 
Persian  conquest  of  Babylonia  in  538  B.  C.  The  first  of  these  dynas- 


126 


CHALD^EA,   ASSYRIA,   BABYLONIA. 


Nimrod, 

the 
Founder 

of 
Chaldaea. 


Migra- 
tions from 

Chaldaea. 


ties  is  largely  traditional,  and  ended,  according  to  Rawlinson,  in 
the  year  2286  B.  C.,  and  according  to  Duncker  in  the  year  24*58 
B.  C. 

The  Hebrew  Scriptures  mention  NIMROD,  the  son  of  Cush  and  the 
grandson  of  Ham,  as  the  founder  of  this  most  ancient  Asiatic  empire. 
Says  the  Mosaic  narrative:  "And  Cush  begat  Nimrod;  he  began  to 
be  a  mighty  one  in  the  earth ;  he  was  a  mighty  hunter  before  the  Lord ; 
wherefore  it  is  said,  Even  as  Nimrod,  the  mighty  hunter  before  the 
Lord;  and  the  beginning  of  his  kingdom  was  Babel,  and  Erech,  and 
Accad,  and  Calneh,  in  the  land  of  Shinar."  Nimrod's  capital  was  the 
celebrated  "Ur  of  the  Chaldees,"  which  at  this  early  period  was  a 
greater  city  than  the  four  which  Nimrod  is  said  to  have  founded.  By 
means  of  his  personal  prowess  and  strength,  as  "a  mighty  hunter  be- 
fore the  Lord,"  Nimrod  had  earned  the  gratitude  of  his  countrymen 
by  reducing  the  number  of  wild  animals  which  roamed  over  that  region 
in  primitive  times.  Evidently  one  of  the  greatest  characters  of  an- 
tiquity, Nimrod  was  deified  by  the  Chaldaeans  after  his  death,  and  was 
worshiped  by  them  and  by  the  Assyrians  and  Later  Babylonians  for 
two  thousand  years,  under  the  title  of  Bilu-Nipru,  or  Bel-Nimrod,  "the 
god  of  the  chase,"  or  "the  great  hunter."  Rawlinson  thinks  that  the 
title  assigned  by  the  Arab  astronomers  to  the  constellation  of  Orion 
— El  Jabbar,  "the  giant" — was  in  memory  of  Nimrod.  The  ignorant 
people  who  occupy  that  region  at  the  present  day  still  remember  Nim- 
rod, Solomon  and  Alexander  the  Great  as  the  three  great  heroes  of 
antiquity,  while  all  others  have  been  forgotten.  Calah,  one  of  the 
Assyrian  capitals,  was  regarded  as  Nimrod's  sacred  city,  and  the  town 
which  now  occupies  its  site  bears  his  name  slightly  corrupted — Nimrud. 
Although  the  tradition  concerning  Nimrod  is  almost  universal,  his 
name  has  not  yet  been  found  among  any  of  the  monuments  or  cunei- 
form inscriptions. 

We  have  no  account  of  the  immediate  successors  of  Nimrod.  Some 
time  after  his  death  there  followed  a  migration  of  Semitic  and  Hamitic 
tribes  from  Chaldaea  to  the  northward  and  westward.  Thus  the  Assyr- 
ians, a  Semitic  people,  migrated  to  the  middle  portion  of  the  Tigris 
valley,  where  they  laid  the  foundations  of  their  kingdom;  the  Phoe- 
nicians, a  Hamitic  race,  descended  from  Canaan,  a  son  of  Ham,  set- 
tled on  the  western  shores  of  the  country  afterwards  called  Canaan,  or 
Palestine,  where  they  became  the  most  famous  commercial  and  coloniz- 
ing people  of  antiquity ;  while  the  Semitic  tribe  which  produced  Abra- 
ham, the  shepherd  and  native  of  "Ur  of  the  Chaldees,"  and  from  whom 
are  descended  the  Hebrews  and  Arabs,  passed  into  Northern  Meso- 
potamia, whence  Abraham  journeyed  westward  with  his  flocks  and 
herds  into  the  "promised  land"  of  Canaan. 


CHALDEAN,   OR   EARLY   BABYLONIAN   EMPIRE. 


127 


One  of  the  successors  of  Nimrod  was  URUKH,  or  Urkham.  !  He  is  the 
first  Chaldsean  king  of  whom  any  traces  have  been  discovered  in  the 
country.  The  exact  time  of  his  reign  is  uncertain.  He  erected  many 
stupendous  edifices,  which  appear  to  have  been  designed  as  temples. 
These  structures  are  gigantic  in  dimensions,  but  rude  in  workmanship. 
The  bricks  of  which  they  are  built  are  rough,  and  put  together  awk- 
wardly, moist  mud  or  bitumen  being  used  for  mortar.  In  speaking 
of  the  works  erected  by  this  monarch,  Professor  Rawlinson  says :  "  In 
his  architecture,  though  there  is  much  that  is  rude  and  simple,  there 
is  also  a  good  deal  which  indicates  knowledge  and  experience."  As- 
tronomy was  cultivated  during  the  reign  of  Urukh.  Ur  was  still  the 
capital  of  the  Chaldsean  monarchy,  Babylon  having  not  yet  risen  into 
importance.  At  Warka,  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  city  of  Huruk — 
the  Erech  of  the  Book  of  Genesis — is  the  famous  mound  called  Bow- 
ariyeh  by  the  present  inhabitants.  The  general  form  of  the  ruin  is 
pyramidal,  but  the  ravages  of  ages  have  destroyed  its  symmetry.  Re- 
cent discoveries  have  brought  to  light  the  fact  that  this  massive  struc- 
ture was  a  tower  two  hundred  feet  square  at  its  base  and  two  stories 
high.  The  lower  story  was  built  of  bricks  baked  in  the  sun  and  ce- 
mented together  with  bitumen,  in  which  were  placed  layers  of  reeds 
every  four  or  five  feet.  In  the  upper  story,  which  is  now  in  ruins,  the 
middle  portion  was  likewise  of  sun-baked  brick,  but  on  the  outside 
were  burnt  bricks.  As  it  now  stands,  this  ancient  temple  is  about  one 
hundred  feet  above  the  level  of  the  plain,  and  not  much  is  known  of 
the  original  dimensions  of  the  massive  edifice,  but  the  ruins  indicate 
that  it  must  have  been  of  immense  altitude  and  grandeur.  All  the 
bricks  of  the  buttresses  are  stamped  with  cuneiform  inscriptions,  and 
the  layers  are  strongly  cemented  with  bitumen.  The  solid  dimensions 
of  the  whole  structure  have  been  estimated  at  three  million  cubic  feet, 
and  the  number  of  bricks  used  in  its  erection  have  been  computed  at 
thirty  millions.  The  name  of  its  royal  builder  frequently  occurs  on 
the  burnt  bricks  of  this  ruined  temple.  In  some  places  his  name  is 
stamped  in  the  baked  clay,  and  in  other  places  the  inscription  records 
that  "Urukh,  King  of  Ur,  King  of  Sumir  and  Accad,  has  built  a  tem- 
ple to  his  lady,  the  goddess  Nana,"  or  that  "Urukh  has  built  the  tem- 
ple and  fortress  of  Ur  in  honor  of  his  Lord,  the  god  Sin,"  or  that 
"The  mighty  Lord,  King  of  Ur,  may  his  name  continue!" 

The  temple  of  Ur  was  also  built  by  Urukh,  and  is  like  the  one  just 
described.  Recent  excavations  have  unearthed  the  ruins  of  this  old 
Chaldaean  structure  after  it  lay  buried  for  centuries  beneath  the  mounds 
of  rubbish.  In  the  portion  of  the  structure  which  has  escaped  the 
ravages  of  time  may  be  seen  the  traces  of  the  temple  of  Hurki,  the 
Moon-god.  The  four  corners  of  the  vast  edifice,  and  not  its  f <aur  sides, 


Urukh 
and  his 
Works. 


Ruins  of 

Huruk. 


Temple 
of  Ur. 


123  CHALJXEA,   ASSYRIA,   BABYLONIA. 

face  the  four  cardinal  points  of  the  compass,  and  the  ground-plan  of 
the  structure  is  in  the  form  of  a  parallelogram,  with  its  longest  sides 
facing  to  the  north-east  and  south-west.  The  foundation  of  this  tem- 
ple is  raised  twenty  feet  above  the  level  of  the  plain.  The  longer  sides 
of  the  base  measure  one  hundred  and  ninety-eight  feet,  and  the  shorter 
sides  one  hundred  and  thirty-three  feet.  The  first  story  above  the 
basement  is  about  forty  feet  high,  and  is  secured  outside  by  a  wall  ten 
feet  thick,  made  of  burnt  brick  cemented  together  with  bitumen.  The 
second  story,  now  mostly  in  ruins,  had  the  same  form  and  character 
originally.  According  to  a  local  tradition  this  immense  structure  had 
a  third  story,  said  to  be  the  shrine  of  the  god  to  whose  worship  the 
temple  had  been  erected.  Tiles  glazed  with  a  blue  enamel  and  copper 
nails  have  been  found  in  such  a  position  as  to  indicate  that  they  were 
used  in  the  construction  of  this  third  story. 

Ruins  of  Similar  ruins  have  been  discovered  in  other  parts  of  Chaldaea,  of 
Larsa'  which  the  most  important  are  those  of  Calneh  and  Larsa.  Heaps  of 

and  Ur.  rubbish,  the  ruins  of  wrecked  temples,  are  seen  in  every  part  of  this 
famous  land  of  remote  antiquity.  In  Calneh  the  fragments  of  temples 
erected  during  the  reign  of  Urukh  are  buried  beneath  two  mounds. 
The  first  of  these  temples  was  dedicated  to  the  goddess  Beltis  and  the 
other  to  Bel-Nimrod.  In  Larsa  the  ruins  indicate  that  San,  the  Sun- 
god,  was  adored  as  the  tutelary  divinity  of  that  city.  In  the  cunei- 
form inscriptions  of  Ur,  his  capital,  Urukh  is  sometimes  called  "King 
of  Ur,"  and  also  "King  of  Accad."  It  was  chiefly  at  Ur  that  his 
great  architectural  works  were  erected.  The  ruins  of  this  once-famous 
city — his  great  capital — display  his  inscriptions  in  greater  profusion 
than  those  of  any  other  Chaldaean  monardh. 

?# ana  Urukh,  at  his  death,  was  succeeded  on  the  Chaldasan  throne  by  his 
Ring.  son,  ILGI,  or  Elgi,  who  also  styled  himself  "King  of  Ur."  The  royal 
seal  or  signet  of  the  Chaldaean  and  Assyrian  monarchs  was  formed  in 
the  shape  of  a  small  cylinder,  with  figures  and  characters  engraven 
in  the  surface.  When  rolled  upon  wax  or  any  other  plastic  material 
this  cylinder  left  the  king's  name  and  emblems  in  relief  upon  the  sub- 
stance employed  in  sealing.  In  one  of  the  mounds  near  Erech,  or 
Orchoe,  the  signet-cylinder  of  Ilgi  has  been  found,  and  is  now  in  the 
British  Museum.  The  legend  inscribed  upon  it  has  been  deciphered 
as  follows:  "For  saving  the  life  of  Ilgi,  from  the  mighty  Lord,  the 
King  of  Ur,  son  of  Urukh."  Ilgi  finished  the  great  architectural 
structures  commenced  by  his  father,  and  is  reputed  to  have  repaired 
two  of  the  great  temples  of  Erech.  The  inscriptions  testify  to  the 
fame  of  both  Urukh  and  Ilgi  as  architects  and  warriors. 

Eiamite         After  Dgi's  reign  there  is  a  blank  in  Chaldaean  history,  broken  by 

Dynasty,    the  conquest  of  the  kingdom  by  a  Susianian,  or  Eiamite  dynasty,  the 


CHALDEAN,   OR    EARLY   BABYLONIAN   EMPIRE.  12g 

second  in  the  lists  of  Berosus,  about  2286  B.  C.     The  first  monarcK 
of  this  dynasty  was  KUDUR-NAKHUNTA,  who  governed  Chaldsea  through     Kudur- 
viceroys,  while  he  held  his  court  at  Susa,  his  capital.     One  of  his  sue-     ^Q^ 
cessors  was  KUDUR-LAGAMER — the   Chedorlaomer   of   Scripture — who 
likewise  reigned  at  Susa,  and  divided  Chaldasa  into  several  provinces,    Lagamgi- 
which  he  governed  by  means  of  viceroys.     Kudur-Lagamer,  or  Chedor- 
laomer, was  the  first  great  Oriental  conquerer.     After  conquering  As-    His  Con- 
syria  he  invaded  Canaan,  or  Palestine,  where  he  was  opposed  by  the 
Canaanitish  princes,  Bera,  King  of  Sodom;  Birsha,  King  of  Gomor- 
rah; Shinah,  King  of  Admeh;  Shemeber,  King  of  Zeboiim;  and  the 
King  of  Bela  or  Zoar.     A  great  battle  in  the  valley  of  Siddim,  near 
the  Dead  Sea — the  first  great  battle  recorded  in  history — resulted  in       First_., 
a  victory  for  Chedorlaomer,  who  for  twelve  years  held  the  Canaanitish     Battle, 
kings  in  vassalage.     At  the  end  of  this  period  these  kings  attempted 
to  free  themselves  from  this  yoke,  whereupon  Chedorlaomer  again  led 
an  expedition  into  Palestine,  and  defeated  the  Canaanites  in  a  second 
battle  in  the  valley   of   Siddim,   on   which  occasion   Lot,   Abraham's 
nephew,  was  taken  prisoner.     After  plundering  the  cities  of  Palestine, 
the  victorious  Chaldees  set  out  upon  their  march  home ;  but  encumbered 
by  their  captives  and  plunder,  they  were  routed  near  Damascus  by    Chaldees 
Abraham,  who  with  a  small  band  had  made  a  night  attack  upon  the  AbrahamT 
retreating  Chaldsean  host,  and  driven  them  in  a  panic  across  the  Syrian 
desert,  recovering  the  booty  they  had  taken.     This  repulse  secured 
Canaan  against  any  further  attack  from  the  King  of  Chaldaea. 

Only  three  of  the  succeeding  Chaldaean  kings  of  this  Susianian,  or 
Elamite  dynasty  are  known.  The  first  of  these,  SINTI-SHILKHAK,  is 
known  only  by  name.  The  second,  KUDUR-MABUK,  whom  the  inscrip-  £u^u£" 
tions  call  "Conquerer  of  the  West,"  is  credited  with  having  enlarged 
and  beautified  the  city  of  Ur,  which  he  made  his  capital,  thus  ingra- 
tiating himself  with  his  Chaldaaan  subjects.  Tradition  also  gives  him 
the  honor  of  restoring  the  old  Chaldaean  religion,  which  his  predecessors 
of  the  Elamite  dynasty  had  discouraged.  The  temples  were  repaired 
"nd  the  worship  of  the  old  deities  once  more  prevailed.  Kudur-Mabuk 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  ARID-SIN,  the  last  of  the  known  monarchs  of  Arid-Sin, 
the  Susianian,  or  Elamite  dynasty,  which  ended  in  the  year  2052 
B.  C. 

Then  came  the  third  dynasty  mentioned  by  Berosus,  a  dynasty  con-  Third  and 
sisting  of  eleven  monarchs,  whose  aggregate  reigns  embrace  a  period       Dy_ 
of  only  forty-eight  years ;  but  neither  monumental  inscriptions   nor     nasties, 
tradition   afford   us   any    knowledge    concerning   the   events    of  their 
reigns.     The   fourth    dynasty    recorded   by    Berosus,    one    embracing 
forty-nine  native  Chaldasan  kings,  reigned  for  four  hundred  and  fifty- 
seven  years,  from  2004  B.  C.  to  1546  B.  C. 
VOL.  1.— 9 


130 


CHALD^EA,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Ismi-Da- 
gon. 


Shamus- 
Vul. 


vJurguna. 


Naram- 
Sin. 


Sin- 
Shada. 

Zur-Sin. 

City  of 

Abu- 

Shahrein. 


Nur-Vul. 


Rim-Sin. 


Arab 
Dynasty. 

Kham- 
murabi 
and  his 
Works. 


One  of  the  first  kings  of  the  fourth  dynasty  was  ISMI-DAGON,  who 
probably  reigned  during  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  before 
Christ,  and  who  subjected  Assyria  to  the  Chaldaean  supremacy.  His 
son,  Shamas-Vul,  was  the  Chaldaean  viceroy  over  Assyria,  and  built  a 
temple  at  Asshur.  The  monumental  inscriptions  prove  the  Chaldean 
ascendency  over  Assyria  at  this  early  period,  the  last-named  country 
being  governed  by  Chaldaean  viceroys.  Ismi-Dagon  was  succeeded  on 
the  Chaldaean  throne  by  his  son,  GURGUNA,  who  is  chiefly  distinguished 
as  the  builder  of  the  great  cemeteries  at  Ur,  among  the  most  wonder- 
ful of  the  ruins  of  Chaldaea.  The  next  king  was  NARAM-SIN,  who 
erected  the  great  temple  at  Agana  and  fixed  his  capital  at  Babylon, 
which  had  at  this  time  become  the  largest  city  of  Chaldaea.  Ur  had 
for  some  time  ceased  to  be  the  Chaldaean  capital;  Erech,  or  Huruk, 
having  taken  its  place;  but  the  latter  city  now  gave  way  to  Babylon, 
which  thenceforth  remained  the  capital  of  the  empire. 

After  Naram-Sin,  who  reigned  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 
century  before  Christ,  followed  the  reign  of  SIN-SHADA,  who  built  the 
upper  terrace  in  the  temple  of  Erech,  now  the  ruins  of  Bowariyeh, 
already  described.  The  next  king  was  ZuR-SiN,  the  most  celebrated 
sovereign  of  his  time.  He  founded  the  city  of  Abu-Shahrein,  the  ruins 
of  which  testify  to  the  adoption  of  a  new  style  of  architecture,  much 
in  advance  of  the  previous  style,  both  in  the  character  of  its  structure 
and  in  its  ornamental  richness.  Here  also  we  get  a  better  idea  of  the 
simple  arts  of  life  prevalent  among  this  celebrated  people  in  the  early 
times.  Stone  knives,  chisels  and  hatchets  are  everywhere  found  among 
the  ruins,  and  some  samples  of  gold  and  bronze  have  also  been  dis- 
covered. Ornaments  for  the  person  were  also  made  out  of  iron.  Of 
NuR-Vui,,  the  next  to  the  last  of  the  kings  of  this  dynasty,  as  men- 
tioned by  Berosus,  no  trace  has  been  found  on  the  monuments.  RIM- 
SIN,  the  last  of  this  dynasty,  is  mentioned  on  a  single  tablet  discovered 
in  the  ruins  of  Ur. 

In  the  year  1546  B.  C.,  Chaldsea  was  conquered  by  an  Arab  chief 
named  KHAMMURABI,  who  founded  the  Arabian  dynasty  of  Chaldaean 
monarchs — the  fifth  dynasty  in  the  lists  of  Berosus,  and  in  which  he 
includes  nine  kings ;  but  the  names  of  fifteen  monarchs  of  this  race  have 
been  deciphered  from  the  cuneiform  inscriptions  and  from  the  tablets. 
Khammurabi  reigned  twenty-six  years,  and  was  a  wise  and  able  sover- 
eign. He  fully  appreciated  the  benefits  accruing  to  the  country  from 
a  proper  system  of  artificial  irrigation.  He  constructed  a  canal  from 
one  of  the  rivers  for  this  purpose ;  and  a  white  stone  tablet,  now  in  the 
Louvre  at  Paris,  bears  an  inscription  which  says  that  the  canal  cut 
by  Khammurabi  proved  a  blessing  to  the  Babylonians,  that  "it  changed 
desert  plains  into  well-watered  fields ;  it  spread  around  fertility  and 


THE  SUN  GOD  SHAMASH  DICTATING  TO  KHAMMURABI  THE  CODE  OF  LAWS 
The  Lower  Section  Shows  the  Character  of  the  Inscription 

From  a  Stele  found  at  Susa  in  1002 


CHALDEAN,   OR    EARLY    BABYLONIAN    EMPIRE. 


131 


abundance."  Khammurabi  also  erected  several  important  edifices,  one 
of  which  was  a  new  palace  at  Kalwadha,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  present 
city  of  Bagdad.  He  likewise  repaired  the  great  temple  of  the  Sun 
at  Larsa,  or  Larrak  (now  Senkereh).  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
SAMSU-ILUNA,  whose  name  has  only  been  found  on  one  series  of  in- 
scriptions, and  of  whose  immediate  successors  no  traces  can  be  found 
for  three  quarters  of  a  century. 

The  next  known  Chaldaean  king  is  KARA-IN-DAS,  the  first  of  five 
monarchs  during  whose  reigns  intimate  relations  were  maintained  with 
Assyria,  which  was  now  gradually  rising  into  importance,  and  which 
eventually  shook  off  the  Chaldaean  supremacy.  Chaldaea  and  Assyria 
were  during  this  period  sometimes  united  by  treaties  of  alliance  or  by 
royal  marriages,  and  were  sometimes  at  war  with  each  other.  When 
the  Chaldaean  king,  KARA-KHAR-DAS,  was  overthrown  and  killed  in  an 
insurrection  headed  by  Nazi-bugas,  an  Assyrian  army  destroyed  the 
insurrectionary  chief  and  placed  the  brother  of  the  murdered  sover- 
eign upon  the  Chaldaean  throne.  Some  time  afterward  PURNA-PURI- 
YAS,  King  of  Chaldaea,  married  the  daughter  of  Asshur-upallit,  King 
of  Assyria.  The  last  of  the  five  kings  just  mentioned  was  KURRI- 
GALZU,  of  whose  reign  relics  have  been  discovered  at  Mugheir,  the 
ancient  Ur,  and  at  Akkerkuf ,  the  latter  of  which  cities  is  said  to  have 
been  founded  by  this  monarch.  The  remaining  kings  of  the  fifth,  or 
Arabian  dynasty  are  SAGA-RAKTIGAS,  the  builder  of  the  temple  of  the 
Sun  at  Sippara,  AMMIDI-KAGA,  and  six  others  whose  reigns  were  unim- 
portant. 

In  the  year  1300  B.  C.,  Tiglathi-Nin,  King  of  Assyria,  invaded 
Chaldaea,  took  Babylon,  and  extended  his  supremacy  over  this  ancient 
Asiatic  kingdom.  Thus  ended  the  Arabian  dynasty  in  Chaldaea;  and 
the  sixth  dynasty,  according  to  Berosus,  probably  Assyrian,  ascended 
the  throne  of  Chaldaea,  which,  with  occasional  intermissions,  remained 
in  dependence  upon  Assyria  thenceforth  until  625  B.  C.,  the  forty-five 
kings  of  the  sixth  dynasty  being  merely  Assyrian  viceroys.  The  As- 
syrian conquest  of  Chaldasa  in  the  year  1300  B.  C.  is  generally  re- 
garded as  the  end  of  this  most  ancient  of  Asiatic  empires — this  great 
mother  of  Asiatic  civilization. 

For  the  next  six  hundred  and  seventy-five  years  Chaldaea — thereafter 
more  frequently  called  Babylonia — was  for  the  most  part  a  dependent 
kingdom  under  the  suzerainty  of  Assyria,  the  Chaldaean,  or  Babylonian 
menarchs  being  vassals  of  the  Assyrian  sovereigns;  this  condition  of 
things  being  broken  by  short  spasms  of  Babylonian,  or  Chaldaean  inde- 
pendence, until  the  final  overthrow  of  Assyria  by  the  united  Median 
and  Babylonian  armies  in  625  B.  C.,  after  which  the  Later  Babylonian 
Empire  was  the  ruling  power  in  the  Tigris-Euphrates  region  and 


Samsu- 
iluna. 


Kara-in- 

das. 


Kara- 

khar-das. 


Purna- 
puriyas. 

Kurri- 
galzu. 


Saga- 
raktigas. 

Ammidi- 
kaga. 

Assyrian 
Conquest 

of 
Chaldaea. 


Subse- 
quent 
History  of 
Chaldasa. 


CHALDAEA,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 

Western  Asia  for  eighty-seven  years,  until  its  conquest  by  Cyrus  the 
Great  of  Persia  in  538  B.  C. 


KINGS    OF    CHALDAEA. 


DYNASTY. 

B.  C. 

TO 

B.  C. 

KlNC.S. 

EVENTS,  ETC. 

I. 

(Chaldaean). 

II. 

(Elamite). 

III. 

IV. 

(Chaldaean). 

V. 

(Arab). 

2286 

2052 
2004 

1546 

2286 
2052 

2004 
1546 

1300 
1300 

Nimrod  

Founded  the  Empire. 
Built  numerous  temples. 
Conquered  Chaldaea  B.  C.  2286. 

Contemporary  with  Abraham.      Led 
two  expeditions  into  Syria. 

Wars  in  Syria. 

Reigned  from  about  B.  C.  1850  to 
about  B.  C.  1830. 
His  brother,  Shamas-Vul,  ruled  in 
Assyria. 

Reigned  from  about  B.  C.  1586  to 
B.  C.  1566. 
Reigned  from  about  B.  C.  1566  to 
B.  C.  1546. 
Reigned  from  about  B.  C.  1546  to 
B.C.  1520. 
Reigned  from  about  B.  C.  1520  to 
B.  C.  1500. 

Contemporary  with  Asshur-bel-nisi- 
su,  B.  C.  1440. 
Contemporary    with    Buzur-Asshur, 
B.  C.  1420-1400. 

Contemporary   with    Asshur-upallit, 
B.  C.  1400-1380. 

Chaldaea  conquered  by  Tiglathi-Nin. 

*        *        *        * 
*        *        *        * 

Urukh  

Ilgi  (son). 

*        *        *        * 

Kudur-Nakhunta  

(Zoroaster). 

*        *        *        * 

Kudur-Lagamer  

*        *        *        * 
Sinti-shil-khak. 
Kudur-Mabuk  (son).. 

Arid-Sin  (son). 

*        *        *        # 

*        *        *        * 
*       *       *        • 
*        *        *        » 

Ismi-Dagon  

Gurguna  (son)  

*        *        *        * 

Naram-Sin. 

*        *        *        * 

Bilat  *  *  at  (a  queen). 

Sin-Shada  (son). 

#        *        *        * 

Zur-Sin. 

*        *        *        * 

Nur-Vul  

Rim-Sin   

Khammu-rabi   

Samsu-iluna  (  son  )  .  .  .  . 

*       *        *        » 
*       *        *        * 

Kara-in-das  

Purna-puriyas  

Kara-khar-das  (son)"") 
Nazi-bugas  I 

Kurri-galzu  (brother  f 
of  Kara-khar-das)  J 

*        *        *        * 
*        *        *        * 

MAP     OF    THE 

EARLIEST   HISTORIC    REGIONS 

AND      THE 
BIRTHPLACE     OF     CIVILIZATION 

B.C.  3000  -1000. 
By  I  S.CIar« 

SCALE  OF  MILES 


0   25    50       100 
The  light  part  represents  the  cradle  or  civilization  and  history 


CHALDEAN   CIVILIZATION. 


133 


SECTION  IV.— CHALDEAN  CIVILIZATION. 

THUS  we  have  seen  that  the  Chaldaean  monarchy  was  the  first  civil 
government  in  Asia,  and  that  its  three  most  illustrious  characters  were 
Nimrod,  the  founder  of  the  kingdom,  "the  mighty  hunter  before  the 
Lord";  Urukh,  the  great  architect,  the  mighty  temple-builder;  and 
Chedorlaomer,  the  warrior,  the  mighty  conqueror,  who  nearly  four 
thousand  years  ago  marched  an  army  a  distance  of  twelve  hundred 
miles,  and  held  Syria  and  Palestine  in  subjection  for  twelve  years,  and 
who  was  the  first  of  all  those  great  Oriental  conquerors  who  within  the 
last  forty  centuries  have  built  up  vast  empires  in  Asia,  which  have 
in  larger  or  shorter  spaces  of  time  successively  crumbled  to  decay. 

In  speaking  of  this  ancient  empire,  Professor  Rawlinson  says :  "  The 
Chaldaean  monarchy  is  rather  curious  from  its  antiquity  than  illustri- 
ous from  its  great  names,  or  admirable  for  the  extent  of  its  dominions. 
Less  ancient  than  the  Egyptian,  it  claims  the  advantage  of  priority 
over  every  empire  or  kingdom  which  has  grown  up  upon  the  soil  of 
Asia.  The  Aryan,  Turanian,  and  even  Semitic  tribes,  appear  to  have 
been  in  the  nomadic  condition  when  the  Cushite  settlers  of  lower  Baby- 
lonia betook  themselves  to  agriculture,  erected  temples,  built  cities  and 
established  a  strong  and  settled  government.  The  leaven  which  was  to 
spread  by  degrees  through  the  Asiatic  peoples  was  first  deposited  on 
the  shores  of  the  Persian  Gulf  at  the  mouth  of  the  'Great  River' ;  and 
hence  civilization,  science,  letters,  art,  extended  themselves  northward 
and  eastward  and  westward.  Assyria,  Media,  Semitic  Babylonia,  Per- 
sia, as  they  derived  from  Chaldaga  the  character  of  their  writing,  so 
were  they  indebted  to  the  same  country  for  their  general  notions  of 
government  and  administration,  for  their  architecture,  for  their  decora- 
tive art,  and  still  more  for  their  science  and  literature.  Each  people 
no  doubt  modified  in  some  measure  the  boon  received,  adding  more  or 
less  of  its  own  to  the  common  inheritance.  But  Chaldsea  stands  forth 
as  the  great  parent  and  original  inventress  of  Asiatic  civilization,  with- 
out any  rival  that  can  reasonably  dispute  her  claim." 

It  was  believed  by  such  eminent  German  scholars  and  antiquarians 
as  Heeren,  Niebuhr,  Bunsen,  and  Max  Miiller,  that  the  ancient  Chal- 
daeans  belonged  to  the  Aramaic,  or  Semitic  race,  and  that  they  were 
thus  kindred  with  the  Assyrians,  Syrians,  Hebrews  and  Arabs.  Herod- 
otus regarded  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians,  from  the  earliest  times, 
as  belonging  to  the  same  race ;  but  Berosus,  Diodorus  and  Pliny  con- 
sidered them  as  ethnologically  different  peoples.  Classical  and  other 
traditions — sustained  by  such  Greek  poets  as  Homer,  Hesiod  and  Pin- 
dar— represent  the  early  inhabitants  of  the  shores  of  the  Persian  Gulf 


Chaldsea 
and  its 
Great 
Kings. 


Rawlin- 
son's 
State- 
ment. 


Conflict- 
ing 
Views. 


134 


CHALD^A,   ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Scrip- 
tural Ac- 
count. 


Philolog- 
ical Dem- 
onstra- 
tion. 

Early 
Hamitic 
Prepon- 
derance. 

Semitic, 
Turanian 

and 

Aryan 

Elements. 


Later 
Semitic 
Prepon- 
derance. 


Early 
Chaldaean 
Architec- 
ture. 


and  the  occupants  of  the  Nile  valley  as  the  same  race,  calling  them 
all  Ethiopians. 

The  Hebrew  Scriptures  also  regard  the  people  of  these  two  regions 
as  belonging  to  a  kindred  race,  namely,  Hamites,  or  Cushites;  Cush, 
the  father  of  Nimrod,  being  a  son  of  Ham ;  and  the  ancient  Ethiopians 
being  called  the  people  of  Cush;  while  the  Egyptians  were  regarded 
as  the  posterity  of  Misraim,  also  a  son  of  Ham.  Recent  philological 
investigations  demonstrate  the  truth  of  the  Scripture  view  of  the  na- 
tional affinities  of  these  primitive  nations,  and  show  the  language  of 
the  primeval  Chaldees  to  have  been  Ethiopic  or  Cushite,  thus  ranking 
them  as  belonging  to  the  same  Hamitic  race  as  the  Egyptians  and 
Ethiopians.  Although  the  predominant  portion  of  the  early  Chaldasan 
population  was  Cushite,  or  Hamitic,  there  was  an  infusion  of  Semitic, 
Aryan  and  Turanian  elements.  The  Semites — such  as  the  Syrians, 
Assyrians,  Hebrews  and  others — migrated  from  Chaldsea  at  a  very 
early  period  to  the  northward  and  westward.  Accad  was  a  Turanian 
settlement,  and  the  Aryans  occupied  the  portions  of  the  country  bor- 
dering on  Cissia,  likewise  called  Susiana,  or  Elam,  whose  people  were 
also  Aryans.  The  name  Chaldaeans  was  unknown  to  these  early  people, 
but  was  given  them  by  Berosus  and  has  been  used  by  writers  ever  since. 
The  Hebrew  prophets — such  as  Isaiah,  Habakkuk  and  others — spoke 
of  the  Babylonians,  even  to  the  latest  times,  as  Chaldseans.  Isaiah 
called  Babylon  the  "daughter  of  the  Chaldaeans,"  and  "the  beauty  of 
the  Chaldees'  excellency."  In  a  restricted  sense,  the  term  Chaldceans 
was  applied  to  the  learned  men  of  Babylon  to  the  latest  ancient  times. 
After  the  Assyrian  conquest  of  Chaldaea,  in  B.  C.  1300,  there  was  an 
admixture  of  new  Semitic  elements  from  the  north,  so  that  in  the  pro- 
cess of  time  the  Chaldaeans  became  Semitized;  and  the  preponderating 
portion  of  the  later  Babylonian  population  was  Semitic,  while  the 
Hamitic,  Aryan  and  Turanian  elements  occupied  a  subordinate  place. 
The  language  of  the  learned  in  Babylon  in  later  times  was  the  classic 
Chaldee,  while  the  national  language  of  the  Semitized  Babylonians 
was  akin  to  that  of  the  Hebrews. 

At  an  early  period — earlier  than  2,000  B.  C. — the  Chaldees  had 
made  considerable  progress  in  the  arts,  especially  in  architecture,  and 
from  the  first  they  showed  the  building  tendency  which  seemed  to  be 
instinctive  in  other  famous  Hamitic  nations,  such  as  the  Egyptians 
and  Ethiopians.  The  attempt  to  build  a  tower  "which  should  reach 
to  heaven,"  made  here,  as  mentioned  in  the  Mosaic  narrative,  was  in 
accordance  with  the  general  spirit  of  the  Chaldees.  Out  of  such  sim- 
ple and  rude  building  material  as  brick  and  bitumen  they  constructed 
edifices  of  vast  size,  the  ruins  of  which  have  recently  been  discovered 
by  the  explorations  of  Layard  and  Botta.  These  vast  structures  were 


CHALDEAN    CIVILIZATION.  I3g 

pyramidal  in  design,  and  were  built  in  successive  steps  or  stages  to  a 
considerable  altitude,  and  so  placed  as  to  face  the  four  cardinal  points 
of  the  compass. 

Speaking  of  the  building  material  of  the  Chaldees,  a  certain  writer  Brick  and 
says:  "Stone  and  marble  were  even  more  rare  in  this  country  than  ]Jltumen- 
wood,  but  the  clay  was  well  adapted  for  the  manufacture  of  bricks. 
These,  whether  dried  in  the  sun  or  burnt  in  kilns,  became  so  hard  and 
durable  that  now,  after  the  lapse  of  so  many  centuries,  the  remains 
of  ancient  walls  preserve  the  bricks  uninjured  by  their  long  exposure 
to  the  atmosphere,  and  retaining  the  impression  of  the  inscriptions  in 
the  arrow-headed  character  as  perfectly  as  if  they  had  only  just  been 
manufactured.  Naphtha  and  bitumen,  or  earthy  oil  and  pitch,  were 
produced  in  great  abundance  above  Babylon,  near  the  modern  town  of 
Hit.  These  served  as  substitutes  for  mortar  and  cement;  and  so  last- 
ing were  they,  that  the  layers  of  rushes  and  palm-leaves  laid  between 
the  courses  of  bricks  as  a  building  material,  are  found  at  this  day  in 
the  ruins  of  Babylon  as  perfect  as  if  a  year  had  not  elapsed  since 
they  were  put  together." 

The  most  imposing  ruins  of  ancient  Chaldasa  are  their  temples,  two  Temple 
of  which  have  been  described.  The  temple  of  Abu-Shahrein  was  sim-  g^ahrein 
ilar  in  character  to  those  of  Erech  and  Ur,  and  was  one  of  the  few 
Chaldasan  edifices  built  of  stone,  which  may  be  accounted  for  by  the 
proximity  of  a  stone-quarry  in  the  neighboring  Arabian  hills. 
In  this  massive  structure  are  also  marble,  alabaster  and  agate,  skill- 
fully cut  and  polished,  while  gold  plates  and  gilt-headed  nails  have 
also  been  discovered  in  the  ruins.  In  the  sacred  shrine  of  the 
deity  to  whose  worship  the  temple  was  consecrated,  the  wood-work 
and  images  of  the  god  were  ornamented.  Like  the  Egyptian 
Pyramids,  the  Chaldaean  edifices  were  chiefly  remarkable  for  their 
grandeur  and  massive  proportions,  while  architectural  beauty  was 
wanting. 

In  the  cities  the  dwellings  were  built  of  brick,  but  in  the  rural  dis-  Chaldaean 
tricts  they  consisted  of  reed  huts  plastered  with  slime.  The  houses  of  £*  ~ 
even  the  rich  seem  to  have  been  rude  and  coarse.  The  remains  of  a 
dwelling-house  have  been  found  among  the  excavations  at  Ur,  in  which 
the  foundation  was  a  brick  platform  raised  above  the  surface,  the  floors 
were  of  burnt  bricks  well  cemented  with  bitumen,  and  the  walls  were 
plastered  with  gypsum.  In  the  apartments  of  a  house  discovered  at 
Abu-Shahrein  the  walls  were  frescoed  with  designs  in  red,  black  and 
white;  and  figures  of  birds,  beasts  and  men  were  skillfully  drawn  on 
the  plaster  of  the  walls.  The  Chaldaean  dwellings  usually  had  flat 
wooden  roofs,  though  sometimes  there  were  arched  roofs  built  of  bricks 
cemented  with  bitumen. 


136 


CHALD^EA,   ASSYRIA,   BABYLONIA. 


Chaldaean 
Tombs. 


Brick 
Vaults. 


Clay 
Coffins. 


Burial 
Mounds. 


Next  to  their  architectural  structures,  the  most  remarkable  remains 
of  the  ancient  Chaldaeans  are  their  burial-places.  The  immense  num- 
ber of  ancient  tombs  discovered  in  what  was  Chaldsea  proper  is  truly 
wonderful.  Large  sepulchers  are  filled  with  the  bones  and  relics  of 
the  dead.  At  Warka,  the  ancient  Erech,  except  the  triangular  space 
between  the  three  principal  ruins,  the  whole  remainder  of  the  platform, 
the  space  within  the  walls,  and  a  wide  extent  of  the  neighboring  desert, 
are  filled  with  human  bones  and  sepulchers.  Coffins  are  heaped  upon 
coffins  from  thirty  to  sixty  feet,  and  there  are  miles  on  miles  of  tombs 
in  portions  of  this  once-famous  land.  The  most  striking  of  these 
burial-places  are  those  at  Warka,  the  ancient  Erech;  at  Mugheir,  the 
ancient  Ur;  at  Abu-Shahrein  and  Tel-el-Lahm. 

The  tombs  are  of  three  kinds — brick  vaults,  clay  coffins  shaped  like 
a  dish  cover,  and  clay  coffins  formed  of  two  large  jars  placed  mouth 
to  mouth  and  cemented  together  with  bitumen.  The  brick  vaults,  prin- 
cipally found  at  Mugheir,  are  seven  feet  long,  three  and  a  half  feet 
wide,  and  five  feet  high.  The  floors  and  walls  of  these  vaults  were 
made  of  sun-dried  bricks  cemented  together  with  mud  or  bitumen,  and 
the  side  walls  were  closed  in  above  with  an  arch.  The  body  was  laid 
to  rest  on  its  left  side  on  a  matting  of  reeds  spread  upon  the  floor. 
The  fingers  of  the  right  hand  were  placed  upon  a  copper  bowl  set  in 
the  palm  of  the  left.  The  head  rested  upon  a  brick  for  a  pillow. 
Articles  of  use  and  ornament  were  placed  in  the  vault,  and  vessels  with 
food  and  drink  were  set  near  the  head  of  the  departed.  The  remains 
of  several  bodies  are  in  many  cases  found  in  the  same  vault,  and  one 
vault  contained  eleven  skeletons.  It  is  believed  from  this  that  the 
brick  vaults  were  family  sepulchers. 

Where  the  dish-cover  clay  coffins  were  used,  the  body  was  laid  on  a 
mat  spread  over  a  sun-dried  brick  platform,  disposed  of  in  the  same 
manner  as  in  the  brick  vaults,  and  surrounded  with  articles  of  food 
and  ornaments.  The  large  clay  coffins  shaped  like  a  dish-cover,  seven 
feet  long,  two  and  a  half  wide  at  the  bottom,  and  two  or  three  feet 
high,  then  covered  the  body,  matting,  utensils,  ornaments  and  all. 
Never  were  more  than  two  skeletons,  one  male  and  the  other  female, 
discovered  under  one  cover.  Children  were  interred  under  covers  half 
the  size  of  those  for  adults.  These  tombs  were  found  seven  or  eight  feet 
under  ground  at  Mugheir.  The  clay  coffins  consisting  of  two  large 
jars,  from  two  and  a  half  to  three  feet  deep  and  two  feet  in  diameter, 
and  cemented  together  with  bitumen,  as  found  at  Mugheir  and  Tel-el- 
Lahm,  readily  contained  a  full-sized  corpse  and  had  an  airhole  at 
each  end  to  allow  the  gases  generated  by  decomposition  to  escape. 

The  coffins  containing  the  bodies  of  the  dead  were  placed  in  rows, 
and  then  covered  with  earth  so  as  to  form  a  mound.  These  mounds 


CHALDEAN   CIVILIZATION. 


137 


were  repeatedly  covered  with  fresh  earth,  so  that  they  were  often  ele- 
vated to  a  height  of  sixty  feet  above  the  original  level  of  the  plain. 
The  mounds  were  carefully  drained  by  means  of  tube-like  shafts  of 
pottery,  consisting  of  a  succession  of  rings  or  joints,  two  feet  in  diam- 
eter and  a  foot  and  a  half  wide,  skillfully  put  together  and  cemented 
with  bitumen,  and  filled  with  masses  of  broken  pottery  to  resist 
external  pressure.  These  drains  reached  from  the  surface  to  the 
original  ground-level;  and  by  their  means  the  sepulchral  mounds 
have  been  protected  from  dampness,  and  their  utensils,  ornaments 
and  skeletons  have  been  preserved  to  the  present  day,  and  appear 
perfect  on  opening  the  tombs,  but  usually  crumble  to  dust  when 
touched. 

Monuments  have  also  been  exhumed  bearing  inscriptions  in  the 
cuneiform,  or  wedge-shaped  characters,  the  deciphering  of  which,  as 
we  have  said,  has  given  us  new  light  on  early  Chaldsean  history.  This 
kind  of  writing  was  used  for  monumental  records,  and  was  either  hewn 
or  carved  in  rocks  and  sculptures,  or  impressed  on  tiles  and  bricks. 
The  legends  stamped  upon  the  baked  bricks  of  this  ancient  period 
prove  the  extent  to  which  this  kind  of  writing  was  in  use.  The  earliest 
date  that  can  be  assigned  to  its  use  was  about  2000  B.  C.,  and  it  was 
little,  if  at  all,  used  as  late  as  300  B.  C.  A  vast  deal  of  labor  and 
erudition  have  been  spent  in  deciphering  these  cuneiform  inscriptions. 
The  great  inscription  of  Behistun,  in  Persia,  is  of  special  interest.  It 
is  engraved  in  three  forms  of  cuneiform  writing,  upon  the  perpendicu- 
lar face  of  a  mountain,  at  a  height  of  three  hundred  feet;  and  gives 
an  account  of  the  genealogy  of  Darius,  his  exploits,  and  the  provinces 
of  his  empire.  This  inscription  was  deciphered  by  Sir  Henry  Raw- 
linson. 

The  writing  of  the  Chaldees  is  well-nigh  as  abundant  as  that  of 
their  Hamitic  kinsmen,  the  Egyptians.  The  writing  was  impressed 
on  the  clay  while  it  was  moist  and  plastic.  The  inscriptions  on  the 
bricks  record  the  history  of  the  building  in  which  they  are  found,  the 
name  of  the  monarch  who  built  it,  his  titles  and  his  fame.  The  inscrip- 
tions on  the  clay  tablets  are  usually  of  a  private  character,  relating 
to  such  matters  as  deeds,  contracts  and  personal  records.  The  writing 
is  from  left  to  right,  except  on  signet-cylinders,  on  which  it  is  reversed, 
because  of  the  manner  in  which  it  was  stamped,  as  described  in  a  pre- 
vious section.  The  legend  on  the  bricks  was  always  stamped  in  the 
form  of  a  square  in  the  center ;  and  was  in  some  cases  impressed  upon 
the  clay,  and  in  others  was  cut  or  engraved  in  the  surface  with  some 
implement.  On  many  of  the  tablets  the  signet-cylinder  of  the  maker 
or  contractor  was  rolled  across  the  surface,  showing  the  wearer's  motto 
and  seal  in  relief.  These  tablets  were  preserved  as  family  records,  just 


Cunei- 
form In- 
scrip- 
tions. 


Behistun 
Inscrip- 
tion. 


Baked 
Brick  and 

Clay 
Tablets. 


138 


CHALD^EA,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Chaldaean 
Pottery. 


Chaldaean 
Arms, 
Imple- 
ments and 
Orna- 
ments. 


Gem 

Cutting, 
Polishing 
and  En- 
graving. 


Chaldaean 
Com- 
merce. 


as  moderns  file  important  documents  for  preservation.  These  inscrip- 
tions abound  in  all  the  ruins  of  ancient  Chaldaea. 

The  earthenware  coffins  and  drainage-shafting,  besides  the  many 
jars,  vases  and  drinking-vessels,  attest  the  skill  of  this  ancient 
people  in  pottery  from  the  earliest  ages  of  their  history.  On  many 
burnt-clay  tablets  are  figures  representing  lions,  bulls  and  men;  in 
most  of  which  are  illustrated  deadly  combats  between  men  and 
lions. 

The  Chaldees  fashioned  arms,  implements  and  ornaments  from  vari- 
ous metals.  In  the  oldest  ruins  are  discovered  flint  knives,  hatchets, 
stone  hammers  and  occasional  articles  of  bronze,  such  as  arrow-heads, 
knives,  hatchets  and  sickles.  Articles  of  iron,  gold  and  copper  have 
been  discovered  in  great  abundance  in  the  mounds.  Ornaments  were 
usually  made  of  iron  or  gold,  while  arms  and  weapons  were  generally 
fashioned  from  copper  or  bronze.  The  primitive  Chaldees  were  also 
celebrated  for  the  fine  cloths  and  delicate  textile  fabrics  manufactured 
by  their  looms,  showing  that  the  spinner's  and  weaver's  art  had  attained 
a  high  degree  of  skill  and  perfection  among  this  renowned  primeval 
race. 

The  Chaldees  were  also  skillful  in  the  art  of  cutting,  polishing  and 
engraving  gems,  some  of  their  work  in  this  art  rivaling  the  best  mod- 
ern specimens.  The  signets  and  seals  were  of  this  class,  and  several 
of  them  have  been  deciphered  and  rendered  in  English.  The  inscrip- 
tion on  the  seal  of  Urukh  has  been  translated  as  follows:  "The  signet 
of  Urukh,  the  pious  chief,  King  of  Ur,  High  Priest  of  Niffer."  On 
Ilgi's  seal  was  the  following  legend:  "To  the  manifestation  of  Ner- 
gal,  King  of  Bit-Zida,  of  Zurgulla,  for  the  saving  of  the  life  of  Hgi, 
the  powerful  hero,  the  King  of  Ur,  son  of  Urukh  *  *  *  May  his  name 
be  preserved."  A  signet-cylinder  of  one  of  the  Sin  kings  bears  this 
inscription:  "Sin,  the  powerful  chief,  the  King  of  Ur,  the  King  of 
the  four  races  *  *  *  his  seal."  Some  of  the  cylinders  bear  neither 
figures  nor  inscriptions ;  while  others  have  no  legend,  but  bear  figures 
and  symobls.  They  were  usually  of  jasper  or  chalcedony,  and  were 
used  to  impress  the  seals  of  their  owners  on  clay  tablets.  They  were 
half  an  inch  in  diameter  and  three  inches  long.  The  cylinder  was 
rolled  upon  the  tablet  by  means  of  a  copper  or  bronze  parallelogram, 
one  side  of  which  was  passed  through  a  hole  bored  through  its  axis. 
It  was  suspended  from  the  owner's  neck  or  waist  by  means  of  a  string 
or  chain  attached  to  a  metal  frame.  The  design  of  the  wearer's  seal 
was  cut  in  reverse  on  the  surface  of  the  signet,  leaving  the  impression 
in  relief . 

The  Chaldees  likewise  engaged  in  commerce  with  other  countries. 
Their  trading  caravans  journeyed  to  the  Aryan  and  Turanian  coun- 


CHALDEAN   CIVILIZATION. 


139 


tries  of  Central  Asia,  and  the  "ships  of  Ur"  navigated  the  Persian 
Gulf  and  traded  with  the  people  on  its  shores. 

The  Chaldseans  found  cheap  and  abundant  articles  of  food  in  the 
luxuriant  growth  of  the  date-palm  and  the  abundant  yield  of  such 
cereals  as  wheat,  barley,  millet  and  sesame;  in  addition  to  which  the 
wealthier  classes  indulged  in  animal  food,  such  as  fish,  chickens  and 
the  wild  boar. 

The  worship  of  the  heavenly  bodies  led  the  primitive  Chaldees  at 
an  early  day  to  the  study  of  astronomy  and  chronology.  Diodorus 
declares  that  the  Chaldaeans  were  far  in  advance  of  all  other  ancient 
nations  in  their  knowledge  of  the  starry  heavens.  This  celebrated 
people  discovered  and  recorded  the  relation  of  the  sun's  circuit  to  the 
other  cycles  of  the  solar  system.  They  observed  that  the  sun's  ap- 
parent course  through  the  firmament  equals  about  twelve  rounds  of 
the  moon,  and  for  this  reason  they  divided  the  year  into  twelve  months 
of  thirty  days  each,  and  when  they  discovered  the  inaccuracy  of  this 
system  they  introduced  new  calculations,  rectifying  the  calendar  so  as 
to  agree  with  the  sidereal  year  of  three  hundred  and  sixty-five  days 
and  six  hours.  By  their  observation  of  the  sun's  course  through  the 
heavens  they  were  able  to  establish  the  twelve  signs  of  the  Zodiac ;  and 
by  observing  the  variation  of  the  orbits  of  the  planets  from  that  of 
the  sun  they  were  enabled  to  fix  the  limits  of  the  zodiacal  signs,  and 
to  divide  each  sign  into  thirty  degrees  by  the  progress  of  the  sun. 
By  watching  the  moon's  phases  they  adopted  seven  days  as  the  length 
of  the  week.  They  further  divided  each  day  into  twelve  hours;  each 
hour  into  sixty,  or  five  times  twelve,  minutes;  and  thus  established  the 
basis  of  the  duodecimal  method  of  calculation.  Two  times  twelve,  or 
twenty-four,  finger-widths  was  fixed  upon  as  the  measure  of  a  cubit. 
A  cycle  of  sixty  years  was  called  a  soss;  ten  times  sixty  was  a  ner;  and 
the  square  of  sixty,  or  thirty-six  centuries,  was  a  sar. 

They  measured  distances  in  the  heavens  by  taking  the  width  of  the 
sun's  disc  as  a  unit.  By  comparing  the  quantity  of  water  discharged 
through  an  orifice  in  a  jar  in  the  time  occupied  by  the  sun  in  crossing 
the  horizon  on  the  morning  of  the  equinox  with  the  amount  discharged 
through  the  same  orifice  at  the  next  sunrise,  they  discovered  that  the 
amount  discharged  between  the  two  risings  of  the  sun  was  seven  hun- 
dred and  twenty  times  the  amount  discharged  during  sunrise  on  the 
equinoctial  morning.  They  thus  inferred  that  the  sun's  orbit  meas- 
ured seven  hundred  and  twenty  times  his  disc,  and  from  this  they 
derived  a  unit  to  measure  space  and  time.  In  regard  to  space  this 
unit  constituted  half  a  degree,  and  in  the  calculation  of  time  the  same 
unit  equaled  two  minutes,  or  one-thirtieth  of  an  hour.  A  stadium  was 

the  distance  an  active  foot-courier  could  walk  in  one  unit  of  time,  or 
1—12 


Articles 
of  Food. 


As- 
tronomy. 


Measure- 
ment of 
Space  and 
Time. 


140 


CHALD^EA,   ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Astro- 
nomical 
Calcula- 
tions. 


Arithme- 
tic, 

Weights 

and 
Measures. 


Chal- 

daea's 

Legacy  to 

Posterity. 


The  Later 
Baby- 
lonians. 


two  minutes;  and  the  distance  he  could  walk  in  thirty  units,  sixty 
minutes,  or  one  hour,  at  the  same  ratio  of  speed,  was  called  a  parasang. 
The  stadium  was  divided  into  three  hundred  and  sixty  cubits,  and  sixty 
cubits  was  called  a  plethron. 

The  Chaldaeans  discovered  and  recorded  the  fact  that  each  cycle  of 
the  moon's  eclipses  is  completed  in  a  period  of  two  hundred  and 
twenty-three  months,  and  from  this  discovery  they  computed  the  length 
of  the  synodic  and  periodic  months  so  accurately  that  modern  astron- 
omers have  found  the  calculation  to  fall  short  of  less  than  five  seconds 
of  our  time.  They  carefully  recorded  all  the  results  of  their  observa- 
tions. The  Greek  Callisthenes,  who  had  accompanied  the  expedition 
of  Alexander  the  Great,  sent  to  Aristotle  from  Babylon  a  series  of 
tablets  on  which  were  inscriptions  recording  astronomical  observations 
dating  as  far  back  as  1903  years  before  the  year  331  B.  C.,  the  year 
that  Alexander  entered  that  city.  These  observations  would  therefore 
reach  back  2234  years  before  Christ. 

The  Chaldaaans  had  also  made  considerable  progress  in  arithmetic, 
and  they  employed  two  systems  of  notation — decimal  and  duodecimal. 
They  used  cuneiform,  or  wedge-shaped  and  arrow-headed  characters, 
to  represent  numbers.  Their  system  of  weights  was  based  upon  their 
system  of  measures.  A  cubit  of  water,  which  weighed  sixty-six 
pounds,  was  divided  into  sixty  logs,  each  log  measuring  about  five- 
sixths  of  a  pint.  The  log  was  the  unit  of  measure ;  and  its  weight, 
called  a  mina,  was  the  unit  of  weight.  A  duck-shaped  stone  belong- 
ing to  King  Ilgi  has  been  discovered  bearing  the  inscription,  "Ten 
minae  of  Ilgi."  Like  most  other  nations,  the  Chaldaeans  had  one  sys- 
tem of  weights  for  the  ordinary  articles  of  the  market-place,  and 
another  system  for  the  precious  metals  and  gems.  Circular  pieces  or 
rings,  called  talents,  shekels,  etc. — names  afterwards  used  by  the  He- 
brews and  the  Greeks — were  taken  as  units  in  weighing  gold  and 
silver. 

Although  the  brilliant  intellectual  activity  of  Chaldsea  ceased  more 
than  three  thousand  years  ago,  and  its  massive  architectural  structures 
have  slumbered  in  eternal  repose  beneath  the  sands  and  dust  of  more 
than  thirty  centuries,  the  grand  mental  triumphs  of  its  venerable  civ- 
ilization yet  remain,  as  a  permanent  legacy  to  posterity — the  ground- 
work of  the  science  and  learning  in  which  they  have  ever  since  been 
recognized  as  the  pioneers — the  wonder  and  admiration  of  the  ages. 

The  partially  Semitized  descendants  of  the  early  Chaldaeans — the 
later  Babylonians — inherited  from  their  Cushite,  or  Hamitic  Chaldaean 
ancestors  their  love  of  astronomy  and  other  sciences,  as  well  as  their 
skill  in  certain  arts  and  manufactures,  and  their  fondness  for  commer- 
cial intercourse  with  the  other  nations  of  antiquity. 


THE    OLD    ASSYRIAN    EMPIRE. 


SECTION  V.— THE  OLD  ASSYRIAN  EMPIRE. 

THE  history  of  Assyria  is  divided  into  three  periods — the  period  of      Three 
its  subjection  to  Chalda:a,  from  the  time  of  the  settlement  of  the  As-     Periods 
Syrians  in  the  Tigris  valley  and  Upper  Mesopotamia  to  B.  C.  1300 ;    Assyria, 
the  Old  Assyrian  Empire  (B.  C.  1300-745);  and  the  New  or  Lower 
Assyrian  Empire  (B.  C.  745-625). 

The  origin  of  the  Assyrians  is  shrouded  in  obscurity,  although  it  Assyria11 
is  known  that  they  were  a  Semitic  tribe  originally  dwelling  in  Chaldaea, 
the  Scriptural  Shinar,  and  that  they  migrated  to  the  middle  Tigris 
valley  during  the  general  movement  of  Semitic  and  Hamitic  tribes 
from  "the  land  of  Shinar,"  some  time  after  Nimrod's  death.  Says 
the  Mosaic  account:  "Out  of  that  land  went  forth  Asshur  and  builded 
Nineveh,  and  the  city  Rehoboth,  and  Calah,  and  Resen  between  Nine- 
veh and  Calah;  the  same  is  a  great  city." 

It  was  before  their  settlement  along  the  middle  Tigris,  and  while  Migration 
they  yet  dwelt  in  the  flat  alluvial  plain  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  cjjja^a 
Tigris-Euphrates  valley — that  productive  region  where  nature  so 
readily  supplied  everything  requisite  for  the  support  of  man,  with  so 
little  exertion  on  his  part — it  was  there  that  the  Assyrians  had  grown 
from  a  family  into  a  tribe  or  nation,  and  had  developed  a  religion  arid 
learned  the  most  essential  of  the  arts.  The  style  and  character  of 
the  Assyrian  architecture  indicates  that  it  originated  in  the  low  flat 
alluvium  where  brick  and  bitumen  were  the  only  building  materials. 
The  cuneiform  writing  of  the  Assyrians  also  shows  its  Chaldaean 
origin ;  while  their  religion  was  very  nearly  identical  with  that  of  their 
southern  neighbors,  the  only  essential  point  of  difference  being  that 
the  chief  Assyrian  god,  Asshur,  was  unknown  in  Chaldaea.  The  monu- 
mental and  tablet  inscriptions  thus  verify  the  statements  of  the  Penta- 
teuch, in  representing  the  Assyrians  as  originally  dwelling  in  Chal- 
daea, and  at  an  early  period  migrating  northward  to  the  middle  Tigris 
region. 

It  is  not  known  whether  the  Semitic  and  Hamitic  migrations  from     Settle- 
Chaldaea,  their  mother  country,  were  voluntary  removals  on  the  part       m^ 
of  the  migrating  tribes  themselves,  or  compulsory  colonizations  inau-    Assyria 
gurated  and  carried  out  by  the  Chaldaean  monarchs.     One  body  led 
by  Terah,  Abraham's  father,  removed  from  Ur  to  Harran;  another 
from  the  shores  of  the  Persian  Gulf  to  Syria,  Canaan  and  Phoenicia; 
and  a  third,  the  Assyrian  branch,  larger  than  either  of  the  other  two, 
ascended  the  Tigris  valley,  occupied  Adiabene,  with  the  neighboring 
districts,  gave  its  own  tribal  name  of  Asshur  to  its  chief  city  and 
territory,  and  was  known  to  adjacent  peoples  first  as  a  separate  tribe, 


14-2 


CHALD^A,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Chaldaean 
Viceroys 

of 
Assyria. 


In- 
dependent 
Kingdom 

of 

Assyria. 


Asshur- 

bil-nisi- 

su,Buzur- 

Asshur 

and 

Asshur- 
upallit. 


Relations 
with 

Chaldaea. 


Growth  of 
Assyria. 


Bel-lush, 
Pudil, 

Vul-lush 
I.  and 

Shalma- 
neeer  I. 


and  afterwards  as  an  independent  and  powerful  nation.  The  date 
of  their  settlement  in  Assyria  is  uncertain,  but  it  must  have  occurred 
before  the  reigns  of  the  Chaldaean  kings,  Purna-puriyas  and  Kurri- 
galzu,  in  the  fifteenth  century  before  the  Christian  era.  A  temple  to 
Anu  and  Vul  was  erected  on  the  site  of  Asshur,  as  early  as  the  nine- 
teenth century  before  Christ,  by  Shamas-Vul,  the  son  and  viceroy  of 
the  Chaldaean  king,  Ismi-Dagon. 

The  Assyrians  were  likely  at  first  governed  in  their  new  country 
by  viceroys  under  the  Chaldaean  sovereigns.  Bricks  of  a  Babylonian 
description  have  been  discovered  at  Kileh-Sherghat,  the  site  of  the 
ancient  Asshur,  the  early  Assyrian  capital,  which  are  believed  to  be 
older  than  any  distinctly  Assyrian  remains,  and  which  were  in  all 
probability  stamped  by  these  viceroys.  Very  soon,  however,  the  As- 
syrians liberated  themselves  from  the  Chaldaean  yoke  and  founded  an 
independent  kingdom  of  their  own  in  their  new  abode,  while  the  old 
Chaldaean  Empire  continued  to  flourish  in  the  alluvial  plain  at  the 
head  of  the  Persian  Gulf.  The  co-existence  of  these  two  kingdoms 
side  by  side  is  attested  by  a  mutilated  tablet  of  much  later  date,  con- 
taining a  synchronistic  record  of  Assyrian  and  Chaldaean  annals  from 
a  very  remote  antiquity.  This  tablet  gives  us  the  names  of  three  of 
the  most  ancient  Assyrian  monarchs — ASSHUR-BIL-NISI-SU,  BUZUR- 
ASSHUR  and  ASSHUR-UPALLIT — the  first  two  of  whom  are  recorded  as 
having  concluded  treaties  of  peace  with  contemporary  Chaldaean,  or 
Babylonian  sovereigns,  while  the  third  interfered  in  the  domestic  affairs 
of  Chaldaea,  deposing  a  usurper  and  restoring  the  rightful  claimant, 
his  own  relative,  to  the  throne.  Intermarriages  occurred  between  the 
royal  families  of  Assyria  and  Chaldaea  at  this  early  period;  and  As- 
shur-upallit,  the  last  of  these  three  Assyrian  kings,  had  given  a  daugh- 
ter in  marriage  to  the  Chaldaean  king,  Purna-puriyas.  On  the  death 
of  the  latter,  his  son,  Kara-khar-das,  became  king  of  Chaldaea,  but  lost 
his  life  in  attempting  to  put  down  a  rebellion  of  his  own  subjects,  and 
was  succeeded  by  a  usurper,  Nazi-bugas.  Thereupon  Asshur-upallit 
marched  an  army  into  Chaldaea,  defeated  and  killed  the  usurper,  and 
placed  Kurri-galzu,  another  son  of  Purna-puriyas,  on  the  Chaldaean 
throne. 

The  tablet  just  referred  to  shows  the  power  and  influence  of  Assyria 
at  this  early  day  as  fully  equal  to  that  of  her  more  ancient  southern 
neighbor.  After  the  events  just  narrated  Assyrian  history  is  a  blank 
for  sixty  years,  only  the  names  of  the  kings  being  known  to  us.  The 
bricks  of  Kileh-Sherghat  show  us  that  Asshur-upallit  was  succeeded 
as  king  by  his  son,  BEL-LUSH,  or  Bellikhus,  who  was  followed  in  suc- 
cession by  his  son  PUDIL,  his  grandson  VUL-LUSH  I.,  and  his  great- 
grandson  SHALMANESER  I.  All  that  is  known  of  Bel-lush,  Pudil  and 


THE   OLD   ASSYRIAN   EMPIRE.  14g 

Vul-lush  I.  is  that  they  erected  or  repaired  important  edifices  at  As-     Asshur, 
shur  (now  Kileh-Sherghat),  which  remained  the  capital  of  Assyria  for    capitai  y 
several  centuries  later.     This  place,  located  on  the  west  bank  of  the 
Tigris,  was  not  favorably  situated,  the  most  fertile  region  of  Assyria 
being  on  the  east  bank;  but  Calah  and  Nineveh  were  not  yet  built. 

Shalmaneser  I.,  who  reigned  from  B.   C.   1320  to  B.   C.   1300,  is   Calah,  the 
chiefly  distinguished  as  the  founder  of  Calah  (now  Nimrud),  the  second     Capital 
of  those  great  cities  which  the  Assyrian  kings  delighted  to  embellish 
with  magnificent  edifices,  and  which  in  the  course  of  several  centuries 
succeeded  Asshur  as  the  capital.     Calah  was  advantageously  situated 
on  the  east  bank  of  the  Tigris,  forty  miles  north  of  Asshur,  in  a  region 
of  exceeding  fertility  and  great  natural  strength,  being  protected  on 
one  side  by  the  Tigris  and  on  the  other  by  the  Shor-Derreh  torrent, 
while  it  was  defended  on  the  south  by  the  Greater  Zab  and  on  the 
north-east  by  the  Khazr,  or  Ghazr-Su.     The  inscriptions  of  Asshur- 
izir-pal  show  us  that  Shalmaneser  I.  undertook  expeditions  against  the       Con- 
tribes  on  the  upper  Tigris,  and  founded  cities  in  that  region,  which  ^aima^ 
he  colonized  with  settlers  brought  from  other  distant  quarters.      Shal-     neser  I. 
maneser's  extension  of  the  Assyrian  dominion  to  the  northward  ranks 
him  as  the  first  known  Assyrian  conquerer.     With  the  death  of  Shal- 
maneser I.  in  B.  C.  1300  ends  the  first  period  of  Assyrian  history — the 
period  of  its  subjection  to  Chaldaea. 

Shalmaneser  I.  was  succeeded  on  the  Assyrian  throne  by  his  son    Tiglathi- 
TIGLATHI-NIN  I.,  the  founder  of  the  Old  Assyrian  Empire,  which  em-    jrouncie'r 
braces  the  second  period  of  Assyrian  history  (B.  C.  1300-B.  C.  745).  of  the  Old 
The  date  of  this  monarch  is  seen  to  synchronize  with  the  time  given    Empire. 
by  Berosus  as  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  Chaldaean,  or  Babylonian 
dynasty,  and  by  Herodotus  to  the  founding  of  the  Assyrian  Empire. 
The  inscriptions  mention  Tiglathi-Nin  as  transferring  to  Assyria  the 
supremacy  hitherto  claimed  and  exercised  by  Chaldsea,  or  Babylonia, 
in  consequence  of  a  successful  war  with  the  latter  kingdom,  which  cir- 
cumstance  induced   him   to   inscribe   upon   his   signet-seal   this   title: 
"Tiglathi-Nin,  King  of  Assyria,  son  of  Shalmanaser,  King  of  Assyria, 
and  conquerer  of  Kar-Dunyas.     Whoever  injures  my  device  or  name, 
may  Asshur  and  Vul  destroy  his  name  and  country."     This  signet- 
seal,  recovered  six  centuries  later  at  Babylon  by  Sennacherib,  shows 
that  Tiglathi-Nin  I.  reigned  personally  for  some  time  in  that  city, 
where  he  afterwards  established  an  Assyrian  dynasty  of  dependent 
kings — probably  a  branch  of  his  own  family.     On  a  genealogical  tab- 
let he  is  called  "King  of  Sumir  and  Accad,"  a  title  not  bestowed  on      TJc^J 
any  of  the  other  kings.  with 

Chaldaea,  or  Babylonia,  was  not,  however,  from  this  time  perma-    o»  3  jfy.' 
nently   subject  to   Assyria.     Nearly   a   century   after   Tiglathi-Nin's      Ionia. 


144 


CHALDJ3A,   ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Assyrian 

Suzer- 
ainty over 
Chaldaea. 


Eight 
Succeed- 
ing Kings. 


Bel-ku- 
dur-uzur. 


His  De- 
feat and 
Death  in 
Baby- 
lonia. 

Win-pala- 

zira. 


conquest  the  Assyrian  supremacy  was  shaken  off,  and  Babylonian  kings 
with  Semitic  names,  and  perhaps  of  Assyrian  descent,  were  engaged 
in  wars  with  the  Assyrian  monarchs.  The  Babylonian  kingdom  was 
not  permanently  subjected  to  the  Assyrian  dominion  until  the  time  of 
Sargon,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighth  century  before  Christ,  and 
even  under  the  dynasty  of  the  Sargonidae  the  Babylonians  were  con- 
stantly in  revolt,  and  were  only  reconciled  to  Assyrian  rule  when  Esar- 
haddon  united  the  two  crowns  and  reigned  alternately  at  Babylon  and 
Nineveh.  Nevertheless,  from  the  time  of  Tiglathi-Nin's  conquest  As- 
syria was  recognized  as  the  ruling  power  in  the  Tigris-Euphrates  val- 
ley, as  is  fully  shown  by  its  conquest  of,  and  its  imposition  of  a  dynasty 
upon,  the  southern  kingdom.  Its  influence  was  therefore  felt,  even 
while  its  yoke  was  rejected;  and  from  the  time  of  Tiglathi-Nin's  con- 
quest, throughout  the  whole  period  of  Assyrian  ascendency  in  the 
Tigris-Euphrates  valley,  the  process  of  Semitizing  the  Chaldaeans  went 
on;  the  names  of  the  Babylonian  kings  during  all  this  time  being 
Semitic,  whether  those  kings  recognized  the  domination  of  Assyria  or 
were  at  war  with  that  power. 

Tiglathi-Nin  I.,  who  was  the  eighth  and  last  Assyrian  king  of  the 
line  founded  by  Asshur-bil-nisi-su,  died  about  B.  C.  1280.  After  an 
interval  of  half  a  century  there  followed  another  series  of  eight  kings, 
known  to  us  chiefly  through  the  celebrated  Tiglath-Pileser  cylinder, 
which  gives  us  the  succession  of  five  of  them,  but  completed  from  the 
united  testimony  of  several  other  documents,  the  most  important  of 
which  are  the  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  synchronistic  tablet  and  the 
mutilated  statue  of  the  goddess  Ishtar  now  in  the  British  Museum, 
which  bears  an  inscription  giving  the  names  and  direct  genealogical 
succession  of  the  last  three  of  these  monarchs.  The  combined  reigns 
of  these  eight  sovereigns  embraced  about  one  hundred  and  sixty  years, 
from  about  B.  C.  1230  to  B.  C.  1070. 

BEL-KUDUR-UZUR,  the  first  king  of  this  second  series,  is  only  known 
on  account  of  his  unsuccessful  war  with  the  contemporary  king  of 
Babylon.  The  Semitic  line  of  kings  established  at  Babylon  by  the 
Assyrians  were  dissatisfied  with  their  state  of  vassalage;  and  during 
Bel-kudur-uzur's  reign  in  Assyria,  Vul-baladan,  the  Babylonian  vassal 
ruler,  attempted  to  throw  off  the  yoke  of  his  Assyrian  suzerain,  and 
the  war  which  followed  ended  in  the  defeat  and  death  of  Bel-kudur- 
uzur  in  a  great  battle  about  B.  C.  1210. 

NIN-PALA-ZIRA  was  the  second  Assyrian  monarch  of  this  second 
series.  It  is  not  certain  whether  he  was  related  to  his  predecessor,  but 
he  avenged  his  death.  The  inscriptions  call  him  "the  king  who  organ- 
ized the  country  of  Assyria,  and  established  the  troops  of  Assyria  in 
authority."  Soon  after  he  ascended  the  throne,  Vul-baladan  of  Baby- 


THE   OLD   ASSYRIAN   EMPIRE. 


145 


Ion,  encouraged  by  his  triumph  over  Bel-kudur-uzur,  invaded  Assyria 
and  attacked  Asshur,  its  capital,  but  was  completely  defeated  in  a 
battle  under  the  walls  of  the  city  and  fled  into  his  own  dominions, 
leaving  Assyria  in  peace  during  the  remainder  of  Nin-pala-zira's 
reign. 

ASSHTTR-DAYAN  I.,  the  third  king  of  the  second  series,  enjoyed  a  long 
and  prosperous  reign,  according  to  the  inscription  of  Tiglath-Pileser 
I.  He  made  a  successful  raid  into  Babylonia  and  returned  to  Assyria 
with  valuable  spoils.  He  also  tore  down  the  dilapidated  temple  erected 
by  Shamus-Vul,  the  son  of  Ismi-Dagon,  at  Asshur;  and  the  structure 
was  not  rebuilt  until  sixty  years  later. 

MUTAGGIL-NEBO,  the  son  and  successor  of  Asshur-dayan  I.,  reigned 
from  about  B.  C.  1170  to  B.  C.  1150.  The  Tiglath-Pileser  inscrip- 
tion informs  us  that  "Asshur,  the  great  Lord,  aided  him  according  to 
the  wishes  of  his  heart,  and  established  him  in  strength  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Assyria." 

ASSHUR-RIS-ILIM,  the  son  and  successor  of  Mutaggil-Nebo,  reigned 
between  about  B.  C.  1150  and  B.  C.  1130;  and  the  inscription  of  his 
son,  Tiglath-Pileser  I.,  calls  him  "the  powerful  king,  the  subduer  of 
rebellious  countries,  he  who  has  reduced  all  the  accursed."  The  syn- 
chronistic tablet  of  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  history  informs  us  that 
he  warred  with  Nebuchadnezzar  I.,  or  Nabu-kudur-uzur,  of  Babylon, 
who  began  the  struggle  by  invading  Assyria  by  way  of  the  Zagros 
mountains,  but  was  repulsed  by  Asshur-ris-ilim  in  person  in  this  moun- 
tain region,  and  driven  back.  Nebuchadnezzar  invaded  Assyria  a  sec- 
ond time,  directly  from  the  south,  but  was  defeated  by  Asshur-ris- 
ilim's  general,  and  driven  back,  leaving  to  the  victorious  Assyrians 
forty  chariots  and  a  banner. 

TIGLATH-PILESER  I.,  the  son  and  successor  of  Asshur-ris-ilim,  who 
died  about  B.  C.  1130,  was  the  first  Assyrian  king  of  whose  history  we 
possess  elaborate  details.  The  discovery  of  his  inscription  on  two 
duplicate  cylinders,  now  in  the  British  Museum,  and  which  was  trans- 
lated in  1857  by  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson,  Mr.  Fox  Talbot,  Dr.  Hincks 
and  M.  Oppert,  has  given  us  the  record  of  events  during  the  first  five 
years  of  his  reign. 

The  Tiglath-Pileser  inscription  begins  by  naming  and  glorifying 
the  "great  gods"  who  "rule  over  heaven  and  earth,"  and  who  are  "the 
guardians  of  the  kingdom  of  Tiglath-Pileser."  These  deities  are 
"  Asshur,  the  great  Lord,  ruling  supreme  over  the  gods ;  Bel  the  lord, 
father  of  the  gods,  lord  of  the  world;  Sin,  the  leader,  the  lord  of 
empire;  Shamas,  the  establisher  of  heaven  and  earth;  Vul,  he  who 
causes  the  tempest  to  rage  over  hostile  lands;  Nin,  the  champion  who 
subdues  evil  spirits  and  enemies;  and  Ishtar,  the  source  of  the  gods, 

VOL.    1.— 10 


Unsuc- 
cessful 
Baby- 
lonian In- 
vasion. 


Asshur- 
Dayan  I. 


Mutaggil- 
Nebo. 


Asshur- 
ris-ilim. 


Unsuc- 
cessful 
Baby- 
lonian In- 
vasions. 


Tiglath- 
Pileser  I. 


His  In- 
scription, 

Glorifica- 
tion of  the 
Gods. 


146 


CHALD^A,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Self- 
Glorifica- 

tion. 


Victory 
over  the 

Mos- 
chians. 


Account 

of  the 

Victory. 


the  queen  of  victory,  she  who  arranges  battles."  These  gods,  it  is 
said  in  this  inscription,  have  placed  Tiglath-Pileser  upon  his  throne, 
have  "made  him  firm,  have  confided  to  him  the  supreme  crown,  have 
appointed  him  in  might  to  the  sovereignty  of  the  people  of  Bel,  and 
have  granted  him  preeminence,  exaltation  and  warlike  power" ;  and  are 
invoked  to  make  the  "duration  of  his  empire  continue  forever  to  his 
royal  posterity,  lasting  as  the  great  temple  of  Kharris-Matira." 

Then  follows  a  self-glorification  of  the  king  with  an  enumeration 
of  his  titles,  thus:  "Tiglath-Pileser,  the  powerful  king,  king  of  the 
people  of  various  tongues ;  king  of  the  four  regions ;  king  of  all  kings ; 
lord  of  lords ;  the  supreme ;  monarch  of  monarchs ;  the  illustrious  chief, 
who,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Sun-god,  being  armed  with  the  scepter 
and  girt  with  the  girdle  of  power  over  mankind,  rules  over  all  the 
people  of  Bel ;  the  mighty  prince,  whose  praise  is  blazoned  forth  among 
the  kings ;  the  exalted  sovereign,  whose  servants  Asshur  has  appointed 
to  the  government  of  the  four  regions,  and  whose  name  he  has  made 
celebrated  to  posterity ;  the  conqueror  of  many  plains  and  mountains  of 
the  Upper  and  Lower  country ;  the  victorious  hero,  the  terror  of  whose 
name  has  overwhelmed  all  regions;  the  bright  constellation  who,  as  he 
wished,  has  warred  against  foreign  countries,  and  under  the  auspices 
of  Bel — there  being  no  equal  to  him — has  subdued  the  enemies  of 
Asshur." 

Tiglath-Pileser  then  recounts  his  conquests  during  his  first  five  years 
as  king.  The  first  people  he  subdued  were  the  Muskai,  or  Moschians 
— believed  to  be  the  Meshech  of  the  Old  Testament — who  were  gov- 
erned by  five  kings  and  inhabited  the  countries  of  Alzi  and  Purukhuz, 
parts  of  Taurus  or  Niphates.  The  Moschians  had  neglected  for  fifty 
years  to  pay  the  tribute  due  from  them  to  the  Assyrians;  and  at  this 
time,  with  a  force  of  twenty  thousand  men,  they  had  invaded  the 
neighboring  country  of  Qummukh  (afterwards  Commagene),  an  As- 
syrian dependency,  and  had  subdued  it;  but  were  there  attacked  and 
defeated  by  Tiglath-Pileser  I.,  who  then  conquered  Commagene,  burned 
its  cities,  plundered  its  temples,  ravaged  the  country,  and  carried  away 
cattle  and  treasure  as  booty  or  tribute. 

The  following  is  a  passage  from  this  inscription:  "The  country  of 
Kasiyara,  a  difficult  region,  I  passed  through.  With  their  twenty 
thousand  men  and  their  five  kings,  in  the  country  of  Qummukh  I  en- 
gaged. I  defeated  them.  The  ranks  of  their  warriors  in  fighting 
the  battle  were  beaten  down  as  if  by  the  tempest.  Their  carcasses 
covered  the  valleys  and  the  tops  of  the  mountains.  I  cut  off  their 
heads.  Of  the  battlements  of  their  cities  I  made  heaps,  like  mounds 
of  earth.  Their  movables,  their  wealth,  and  their  valuables  I  plun- 
dered to  a  countless  amount.  Six  thousand  of  their  common  soldiers, 


THE    OLD    ASSYRIAN    EMPIRE. 


who  fled  before  my  servants,  and  accepted  my  yoke,  I  took  and  gave 
over  to  the  men  of  my  own  territory  as  slaves." 

The  Moschians  still  refusing  to  pay  tribute,  Tiglath-Pileser  con- 
ducted a  second  campaign  in  their  country  and  again  subdued  them, 
completely  overrunning  Commagene,  which  was  annexed  to  the  As- 
syrian Empire.  He  also  attacked  the  neighboring  tribes  in  their  fast- 
nesses, burned  their  cities  and  ravaged  their  territories.  He  likewise 
invaded  the  country  of  the  Khatti  (Hittites),  because  two  of  their 
tribes  had  committed  an  aggression  on  Assyrian  territory,  and  com- 
pletely chastising  them,  carried  away  one  hundred  and  twenty  chariots 
and  much  valuable  booty.  He  also  invaded  the  mountainous  region  of 
the  Zagros,  reduced  its  stronghold  and  seized  much  treasure. 

Tiglath-Pileser's  third  campaign  was  against  the  Nairi  tribes  of  the 
Euphrates  valley  in  Northern  Syria  and  Mesopotamia,  the  district  sub- 
sequently known  as  Commagene.  These  tribes  were  ruled  by  many 
petty  kings.  Those  east  of  the  Euphrates  were  easily  conquered,  but 
those  west  of  the  river  were  only  subdued  after  a  desperate  and  pro- 
tracted struggle.  The  Assyrians  gained  a  great  victory,  taking  one 
hundred  and  twenty  chariots,  and  pursued  the  Nairi  and  their  allies 
to  the  Mediterranean.  The  country  was  frightfully  ravaged,  and  the 
vanquished  were  required  to  pay  a  tribute  of  twelve  hundred  horses 
and  two  hundred  cattle. 

In  his  fourth  campaign,  Tiglath-Pileser  attacked  the  Aramaeans,  or 
Syrians,  who  then  occupied  the  narrow  valley  of  the  Euphrates  for  a 
distance  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  miles,  from  the  territories  of  the 
Tsukhi,  or  Shuhites,  between  Anah  and  Hit  on  the  south-east,  to 
Carchemish,  the  capital  and  stronghold  of  the  Khatti,  or  Hittites,  on 
the  north-west.  Tiglath-Pileser  says  in  his  inscription  that  he  re- 
duced this  region  "at  one  blow."  He  first  plundered  the  east  bank 
of  the  river,  and  then  crossed  the  stream  in  boats  covered  with  skins, 
and  burned  six  cities  on  the  west  bank  and  carried  away  a  vast  amount 
of  booty. 

Tiglath-Pileser's  fifth  and  last  campaign  was  against  the  land  of 
Musr,  or  Muzr,  in  the  upper  part  of  the  present  Kurdistan,  which  was 
completely  overrun,  and  its  armies  were  defeated,  its  cities  burned  and 
its  strongholds  taken.  Arin,  the  capital,  was  spared  because  of  its 
submission,  and  a  tribute  was  imposed  upon  the  country.  The  Co- 
mani,  who,  though  Assyrian  subjects,  had  assisted  the  inhabitants  of 
Musr,  were  punished  for  their  defection  by  Tiglath-Pileser,  who  in- 
vaded their  country,  defeated  their  army  of  twenty  thousand  men,  and 
took  their  towns  and  castles,  some  by  storm  and  others  without  resist- 
ance, burning  the  former  and  sparing  the  latter,  but  destroying  the 
fortifications  of  both;  and  the  "far-spreading  country  of  the  Comani" 


Conquest 
of  the 
Mos- 
chians 
and  the 
Hittites. 


Conquest 
of  the 
Na'iri. 


Conquest 

of  the 
Syrians. 


Conquest 
of  Musr 
and  the 
Comani. 


148 


CHALD^A,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Total 

Con- 
quests. 


Tiglath- 
Pileser's 
Hunting 
Exploits. 


His 

Works. 


His 
Descent. 


was  soon  reduced  to  submission  and  an  increased  tribute  exacted 
from  it. 

After  this  fifth  campaign,  Tiglath-Pileser's  inscription  sums  up  the 
result  of  his  wars  thus:  " There  fell  into  my  hands  altogether  between 
the  commencement  of  my  reign  and  my  fifth  year,  forty-two  countries 
with  their  kings,  from  the  banks  of  the  river  Zab  to  the  banks  of  the 
river  Euphrates,  the  country  of  the  Khatti,  and  the  upper  ocean  of 
the  setting  sun.  I  brought  them  under  one  government;  I  took  hos- 
tages from  them;  and  I  imposed  on  them  tribute  and  offerings." 

The  king  next  boasts  of  his  hunting  exploits.  He  says  that  he 
killed  with  his  arrows  in  the  country  of  the  Hittites,  "four  wild  bulls, 
strong  and  fierce";  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Harran,  on  the  banks  of 
the  river  Khabour,  he  slew  ten  large  wild  buffaloes  and  took  four  alive. 
He  took  these  captured  animals,  with  the  hides  and  horns  of  the  killed 
beasts,  to  Asshur,  his  capital  city.  He  also  says  that  he  slew  nine 
hundred  and  twenty  lions  in  his  various  journeys,  and  attributes  all 
these  exploits  to  the  protection  of  the  gods  Nin  and  Nergal. 

This  great  monarch  then  gives  an  account  of  the  buildings  which 
he  had  erected  and  of  the  improvements  which  he  had  introduced. 
Among  these  buildings  are  the  temples  to  Ishtar,  Martu,  Bel,  II,  and 
the  presiding  deities  of  the  city  of  Asshur,  his  own  royal  palaces,  and 
castles  for  the  military  defence  of  his  dominions.  Among  his  public 
improvements  he  mentions  the  construction  of  works  of  irrigation,  the 
introduction  of  cattle  and  wild  animals  from  other  countries  into  As- 
syria, as  well  as  of  foreign  vegetable  productions,  the  increase  in  the 
number  of  chariots,  the  enlargement  of  his  dominions,  and  the  growth 
of  the  population. 

Before  speaking  of  the  restoration  of  two  old  temples  in  the  city  of 
Asshur,  Tiglath-Pileser  gives  an  account  of  his  descent  from  Nin-pala- 
zira,  the  founder  of  the  dynasty,  as  follows:  "Tiglath-Pileser,  the 
illustrious  prince,  whom  Asshur  and  Nin  have  exalted  to  the  utmost 
wishes  of  his  heart ;  who  has  pursued  after  the  enemies  of  Asshur,  and 
has  subjugated  all  the  earth — the  son  of  Asshur-ris-ilim,  the  powerful 
king,  the  subduer  of  rebellious  countries,  he  who  has  reduced  all  the 
accursed — the  grandson  of  Mutaggil-Nebo,  whom  Asshur,  the  Great 
Lord,  aided  according  to  the  wishes  of  his  heart,  and  established  in 
strength  in  the  government  of  Assyria — the  glorious  offspring  of 
Asshur-dayan,  who  held  the  scepter  of  dominion,  and  ruled  over  the 
people  of  Bel ;  who  in  all  the  works  of  his  hands  and  the  deeds  of  his 
life  placed  his  reliance  on  the  great  gods,  and  thus  obtained  a  long 
and  prosperous  life — the  beloved  child  of  Nin-pala-zira,  the  king  who 
organized  the  country  of  Assyria,  who  purged  his  territories  of  the 
wicked,  and  established  the  troops  of  Assyria  in  authority," 


THE   OLD   ASSYRIAN    EMPIRE. 


149 


The  temple  torn  down  by  Asshur-dayan  I.,  the  great-grandfather 
of  Tiglath-Pileser  I.,  and  which  had  stood  for  six  hundred  and  forty- 
one  years,  was  not  rebuilt;  and,  after  its  site  had  remained  vacant  for 
sixty  years,  Tiglath-Pileser,  soon  after  his  accession,  resolved  upon  the 
erection  there  of  a  new  temple  to  the  old  gods,  Anu  and  Vul,  believed 
to  be  tutelary  deities  of  the  city  of  Asshur. 

Tiglath-Pileser  relates  the  circumstances  of  the  building  and  dedica- 
tion of  this  new  temple,  as  follows:  "In  the  beginning  of  my  reign, 
Anu  and  Vul,  the  Great  Gods,  my  lords,  guardians  of  my  steps,  gave 
me  a  command  to  repair  this  their  shrine.  So  I  made  bricks ;  I  leveled 
the  earth ;  I  took  its  dimensions ;  I  laid  down  its  foundations  upon  a 
mass  of  strong  rock.  This  place,  throughout  its  whole  extent,  I  paved 
with  bricks  in  set  order;  fifty  feet  deep  I  prepared  the  ground;  and 
upon  this  substructure  I  laid  the  lower  foundations  of  the  temple  of 
Anu  and  Vul.  From  its  foundation  to  its  roof  I  built  it  up  better  than 
it  was  before.  I  also  built  two  lofty  towers  in  honor  of  their  noble 
godships,  and  the  holy  place,  a  spacious  hall,  I  consecrated  for  the 
convenience  of  their  worshipers,  and  to  accommodate  their  votaries, 
who  were  numerous  as  the  stars  of  heaven.  I  repaired,  and  built,  and 
completed  my  work.  Outside  the  temple  I  fashioned  with  the  same 
care  as  inside.  The  mound  of  earth  on  which  it  was  built  I  enlarged 
like  the  firmament  of  the  rising  stars,  and  I  beautified  the  entire  build- 
ing. Its  towers  I  raised  up  to  heaven,  and  its  roofs  I  built  entirely 
of  brick.  An  inviolable  shrine  for  their  noble  godships  I  laid  down 
near  at  hand.  Anu  and  Vul,  the  Great  Gods,  I  glorified  inside  the 
shrine.  I  set  them  up  in  their  honored  purity,  and  the  hearts  of  their 
noble  godships  I  delighted." 

The  other  temple,  which  Tiglath-Pileser  I.  says  he  restored,  was 
one  to  Anu  only,  which,  like  the  one  just  mentioned,  was  originally 
built  by  Shamas-Vul,  the  son  of  Ismi-Dagon.  This  building  had  like- 
wise fallen  into  decay,  but  had  not  been  taken  down  like  the  other. 
Tiglath-Pileser  says  that  he  "leveled  its  site,"  and  then  rebuilt  it  "from 
its  foundations  to  its  roofs,"  enlarging  and  embellishing  it.  Inside  the 
building  he  "sacrificed  precious  victims  to  his  lord,  Vul."  In  the 
temple  he  likewise  deposited  a  collection  of  rare  stones  and  marbles, 
which  he  had  procured  in  the  country  of  the  Nai'ri  during  his  wars 
there. 

Tiglath-Pileser's  inscription  ends  with  the  following  lengthy  invoca- 
tion: "Since  a  holy  place,  a  noble  hall,  I  have  thus  consecrated  for 
the  use  of  the  Great  Gods,  my  lords,  Anu  and  Vul,  and  have  laid  down 
an  adytum  for  their  special  worship,  and  have  finished  it  successfully, 
and  have  delighted  the  hearts  of  their  noble  godships,  may  Anu  and 
Vul  preserve  me  in  power!  May  they  support  the  men  of  my  gov- 


Temple  to 

Anu  and 

Vul. 


Account 

of  the 

Building 

Thereof. 


Tiglath- 
Pileser's 
Invoca- 
tion. 


150 


CHALD^A,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


ernraent !  May  they  establish  the  authority  of  my  officers !  May  they 
bring  the  rain,  the  joy  of  the  year,  on  the  cultivated  land  and  the 
desert,  during  my  time !  In  war  and  in  battle  may  they  preserve  me 
victorious!  Many  foreign  countries,  turbulent  nations,  and  hostile 
kings  I  have  reduced  under  my  yoke;  to  my  children  and  my  descend- 
ants, may  they  keep  them  in  firm  allegiance!  I  will  lead  my  steps" 
(or,  "may  they  establish  my  feet"),  "firm  as  the  mountains,  to  the 
last  days,  before  Asshur  and  their  noble  godships!  The  list  of  my 
victories  and  the  catalogue  of  my  triumphs  over  foreigners  hostile  to 
Asshur,  which  Anu  and  Vul  have  granted  to  my  arms,  I  have  inscribed 
on  my  tablets  and  cylinders,  and  I  have  placed  [to  remain],  to  the 
last  days,  in  the  temple  of  my  lords,  Anu  and  Vul.  And  I  have  made 
clean  the  tablets  of  Shamas-Vul,  my  ancestor;  I  have  made  sacrifices, 
and  sacrificed  victims  before  them,  and  have  set  them  up  in  their  places. 
In  after  times,  and  in  the  latter  days  *  *  *  if  the  temples  of  the 
Great  Gods,  my  lords  Anu  and  Vul,  and  these  shrines  should  become 
old  and  fall  into  decay,  may  the  prince  who  comes  after  me  repair  the 
ruins !  May  he  raise  altars  and  sacrifice  victims  before  my  tablets  and 
cylinders,  and  may  be  set  them  up  again  in  their  places,  and  may  he 
inscribe  his  name  on  them  together  with  my  name!  As  Anu  and  Vul, 
the  Great  Gods,  haye  ordained,  may  he  worship  honestly  with  a  good 
heart  and  a  full  trust!  Whoever  shall  abrade  or  injure  my  tablets 
and  cylinders,  or  shall  moisten  them  with  water,  or  scorch  them  with 
fire,  or  expose  them  to  the  air,  or  in  the  holy  place  of  God  shall 
assign  them  a  place  where  they  cannot  be  seen  or  understood,  or  shall 
erase  the  writing  and  inscribe  his  own  name,  or  shall  divide  the  sculp- 
tures and  break  them  off  from  my  tablets,  may  Anu  and  Vul,  the  Great 
Gods,  my  lords,  consign  his  name  to  perdition!  May  they  curse  him 
with  an  irrevocable  curse!  May  they  cause  his  sovereignty  to  perish! 
May  they  pluck  out  the  stability  of  the  throne  of  his  empire!  Let 
not  his  offspring  survive  him  in  the  kingdom!  Let  his  servants  be 
broken!  Let  his  troops  be  defeated!  Let  him  fly  vanquished  before 
his  enemies !  May  Vul  in  his  fury  tear  up  the  produce  of  his  land ! 
May  a  scarcity  of  food  and  of  the  necessaries  of  life  afflict  his  coun- 
try! For  one  day  may  he  not  be  called  happy!  May  his  name  and 
his  race  perish ! " 

Date  of          The  document  is  then  dated:   "  In  the  month  Kuzalla  (Chisleu),  OB 
scription.   the  29th  day,  in  the  year  presided  over  by  Ina-iliya-pallik,  the  Rabbi- 
Turi." 

The  most  striking  feature  of  Tiglath-Pileser's  inscription  is  its  re- 
ligious tone.  His  wars  are  not  only  wars  of  conquest,  but  they  are 
religious  wars,  designed  to  extend  the  worship  of  Asshur,  as  well  as  to 
enlarge  the  dominion  of  the  Assyrian  monarch.  All  the  king's  suc- 


Its 

Religiout 
Tone. 


THE   OLD   ASSYRIAN   EMPIRE.  lfil 

cesses  in  war  and  hunting  are  ascribed  to  the  aid  and  favor  of  Asshur. 
The  wars  were  undertaken  to  chastise  the  enemies  of  Asshur,  as  the 
Hebrews  fought  to  punish  the  enemies  of  Jehovah.  The  commanding 
position  which  religion  occupied  in  the  hearts  of  the  Assyrian  kings 
and  people  is  proven  by  the  long  and  solemn  invocation  of  the  Great 
Gods,  the  religious  character  and  purposes  of  the  wars,  the  account 
given  of  the  building  and  renovation  of  the  temples,  the  dedication 
of  offerings,  and  the  characteristic  final  prayer.  The  deep  earnestness 
of  this  religious  faith  of  the  Assyrians,  in  its  outward  manifestations, 
displayed  a  zeal  and  fanaticism  akin  to  that  of  the  Israelites  in  their 
wars  with  the  Canaanites,  Philistines  and  other  nations,  or  to  that  of 
the  followers  of  Mohammed  in  their  warfare  against  the  foes  of  Islam. 
The  Assyrian  king  glorifies  himself  much,  but  he  glorifies  the  gods 
more.  While  fighting  for  his  own  credit  and  the  extension  of  his 
own  dominion,  he  likewise  fights  for  the  honor  and  glory  of  Asshur, 
the  Great  Lord,  and  the  other  Great  Gods,  whom  the  neighboring 
nations  reject.  His  buildings  are  temples  for  the  worship  of  the  gods. 
His  whole  mind  is  deeply  imbued  with  religious  feeling,  showing  that 
the  gods  are  "in  all  his  thoughts."  This  religious  feeling  is  highly 
exclusive  and  intolerant,  like  the  religious  feeling  of  the  Hebrews,  as 
expressed  in  the  Old  Testament. 

The  king,  while  exalting  himself,  is  still  "the  illustrious  chief,  who,  Exalta- 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Sun-god,  rules  over  the  people  of  Bel,"  and  ^g  Gods, 
"whose  servants  Asshur  has  appointed  to  the  government  of  the  four 
regions."  If  his  enemies  fly,  "the  fear  of  Asshur  has  overwhelmed 
them;  if  they  refuse  tribute,  they  withhold  the  offerings  due  to  As- 
shur." The  king  himself  feels  inclined  to  make  an  expedition  against 
a  country ;  "  his  lord  Asshur  invites  him  "  to  proceed  thither ;  if  he 
collects  an  army,  "Asshur  has  committed  the  troops  to  his  hand." 
When  a  country  not  previously  subject  to  Assyria  is  attacked,  it  is 
because  the  people  "do  not  acknowledge  Asshur";  when  its  plunder  is 
carried  off,  it  is  to  adorn  and  enrich  the  temples  of  Asshur  and  the 
other  gods;  when  it  yields,  the  first  thing  is  to  "attach  it  to  the  wor- 
ship of  Asshur."  The  king  hunts  "under  the  auspices  of  Nin  and 
Nergal,"  or  of  "Nin  and  Asshur";  he  puts  his  tablets  under  the  pro- 
tection of  Anu  and  Vul;  he  attributes  the  long  life  of  one  ancestor  to 
his  exceeding  piety,  and  the  prosperity  of  another  to  the  protection 
which  Asshur  bestowed  upon  him.  The  name  of  Asshur  occurs  in  the 
inscription  almost  forty  times,  or  once  in  nearly  every  paragraph. 
Shamas,  the  Sun-god,  and  the  gods  Anu,  Vul  and  Bel,  are  mentioned 
frequently;  while  Sin,  the  Moon-god,  and  the  deities  Nin,  Nergal, 
Ishtar,  Beltis,  Martu  and  II,  are  also  acknowledged.  All  this  is  on 
an  historical  inscription. 


152 


CHALD.EA,   ASSYRIA,   BABYLONIA. 


Tiglath- 
Pileser's 
Energetic 
Charac- 
ter. 


His  Self- 
Exalta- 
tion. 


Weakness 
of 

Assyria's 
Neigh- 
bors. 


The  energetic  character  of  TigMh-Pileser  I.  is  fully  attested  by  his 
military  exploits  during  the  first  five  years  of  his  reign,  as  displayed 
in  the  conquest  of  six  neighboring  nations  and  many  petty  tribes ;  the 
humbling  of  forty-two  kings ;  the  traversing  of  difficult  mountain  re- 
gions ;  the  victories  in  battle ;  the  sieges  of  towns ;  the  storming  and 
destruction  of  strongholds;  the  ravaging  of  countries;  the  incessant 
employment  of  the  monarch;  his  pursuit  of  the  chase;  his  contests 
with  the  wild  bull  and  the  lion,  in  which  he  rivaled  "the  mighty  hunter 
before  the  Lord,"  counting  his  victims  by  the  hundreds ;  while  all  this 
time  he  was  concerned  for  the  welfare  of  his  dominions,  as  shown  in 
the  magnificent  structures  which  he  erected,  the  introduction  of  the 
animal  and  vegetable  products  of  other  regions  and  climes,  the  fertil- 
izing of  the  land  by  works  of  irrigation,  and  his  measures  in  general, 
"improving  the  condition  of  the  people,  and  obtaining  for  them 
abundance  and  security." 

Asshur  was  still  the  Assyrian  capital,  and  no  other  native  city  is 
yet  named,  though  mention  is  made  of  "fortified  cities."  In  his  in- 
scription Tiglath-Pileser  calls  himself  "king  of  the  four  regions,"  and 
also  "the  exalted  sovereign  whose  servants  Asshur  has  appointed  to 
the  government  of  the  country  of  the  four  regions."  The  Assyrian 
territory  seems  at  this  time  to  have  been  bounded  on  the  east  by  the 
Zagros  mountains,  on  the  north  by  the  Niphates  ranges,  on  the  west 
by  the  Euphrates,  and  on  the  south  by  Chaldsea,  or  Babylonia.  The 
plunder  of  other  countries  poured  wealth  into  Assyria,  the  introduction 
of  enslaved  captives  cheapened  labor,  irrigation  was  improved,  new 
fruits  and  animals  were  introduced,  fortifications  were  repaired,  palaces 
were  renovated,  and  temples  were  embellished  or  rebuilt. 

The  countries  bordering  upon  Assyria  on  the  north,  east  and  west 
exhibited  conditions  of  political  weakness,  and  were  divided  into  a 
multitude  of  petty  nations  and  tribes,  the  most  powerful  of  which  could 
raise  an  army  of  only  twenty  thousand  men.  These  nations  lacked 
the  essential  elements  of  unity,  being  divided  into  many  separate  com- 
munities governed  by  their  own  kings,  who  in  times  of  war  united 
against  the  common  foe,  but  who  were  too  jealous  of  each  other  to 
even  select  a  generalissimo.  On  the  Euphrates,  between  Hit  and 
Carchemish,  were,  first,  the  Tsukhi,  or  Shuhites;  next  above  them,  on 
both  banks  of  the  river,  were  the  Aramaeans,  or  Syrians,  who  possessed 
many  cities ;  and  above  the  Aramaeans,  also  on  both  sides  of  the  stream, 
were  the  Khatti,  or  Hittites,  who  were  divided  into  tribes,  and  whose 
chief  city  was  Carchemish.  North  and  north-west  of  the  Khatti  were 
the  Muskai,  or  Moschi,  a  warlike  people,  who  endeavored  to  extend 
their  dominion  eastward  into  the  territory  of  the  Qummukh,  or  people 
of  Commagene.  The  Qummukh  occupied  and  ruled  the  mountain  re- 


THE    OLD    ASSYRIAN    EMPIRE.  153 

gion  on  both  sides  of  the  upper  Tigris,  and  had  many  strongholds, 
most  of  which  were  on  the  west  bank  of  the  river.  East  of  the  Qum- 
mukh  were  the  Kirkhi,  while  south  of  them  were  the  Na'iri,  who  occu- 
pied the  region  from  Lake  Van,  along  the  line  of  the  Tigris,  to  the 
district  called  Commagene  by  the  Romans.  The  Na'iri  had,  at  least, 
twenty-three  kings,  each  of  whom  ruled  his  own  tribe  or  city.  South 
of  the  eastern  Nai'ri  was  the  country  of  Musr,  or  Muzr,  a  mountain 
region  densely  inhabited  and  abounding  in  strong  castles.  To  the  east 
and  south-east  of  Muzr  were  the  Comani,  or  Quwana,  the  most  power- 
ful of  Assyria's  neighbors,  like  the  Moschi,  able  to  raise  an  army  of 
twenty  thousand  men.  The  Comani  and  the  people  of  Muzr  were  at 
this  time  close  allies.  Across  the  lower  Zab,  skirting  the  Zagros,  were 
the  many  petty  tribes  who  offered  little  resistance  to  the  Assyrian 
arms. 

Thus,  late  in  the  twelfth  century  before  Christ,  Assyria  was  a  com-  Assyria's 
pact  and  powerful  kingdom,  surrounded  on  her  eastern,  northern  and 
western  sides,  by  weak  neighbors.  Centralized  therefore  under  one 
monarch,  Assyria,  with  a  single  great  capital,  was  easily  able  to  tri- 
umph over  foes,  who,  although  united  in  confederations  to  resist  their 
common  enemy,  were  easily  dispersed  after  suffering  a  defeat.  Only 
on  her  southern  border  did  Assyria  have  a  powerful  neighbor  in  the 
ancient  and  venerable  monarchy  of  Chaldasa,  or  Babylonia,  whose 
Semitic  sovereigns,  although  established  in  that  country  by  Assyrian 
influence,  had  renounced  all  dependence  upon  their  old  protectors. 
Chaldaea,  almost  equal  in  territorial  extent  and  population  to  Assyria, 
and  as  much  centralized  and  consolidated  in  her  government,  served  as 
a  check  to  her  aggressive  and  vigorous  northern  neighbor,  thus  pre 
serving  some  semblance  of  the  balance  of  power  in  Western  Asia. 

In  addition  to  the  great  cylinder  inscription  of  Tiglath-Pileser  I.,    Tiglath- 
five  more  years  of  his  annals  exist  in  fragments,  which  give  us  accounts    Pileser's 
of  the  continuance  of  his  aggressive  expeditions,  principally  in  the     quests, 
direction  of  the  north-west,  during  which  he  subdued  the  Lulumi  in 
Northern  Syria,  attacked  and  took  Carchemish,  and  pursued  the  flee- 
ing inhabitants  across  the  Euphrates  in  boats. 

Near  the  end  of  his  reign  Tiglath-Pileser  I.  marched  an  army  into    His  Sue- 
Babylonia,  and  ravaged  its  northern  territories  with  fire  and  sword      cessful 
for  two  years,  taking  the  cities  of  Dur-Kurri-galzu  (now  Akkerkuf ),    of  Baby- 
Sippara  of  the   Sun,  and  Sippara  of  Anunit   (the   Sepharvaim,  or      loma- 
"two  Sipparas"  of  the  Hebrews),  Hupa   (or  Opis),  on  the  Tigris, 
and  finally  the  great  capital,  Babylon,  itself. 

After  the  capture  of  Babylon,  Tiglath-Pileser  I.  led  an  army  up  the  Baby- 
Euphrates,  and  took  several  of  the  cities  of  the  Tsukhi.  But  the  *°°ian 
Babylonian  king,  Merodach-iddin-akhi,  captured  some  of  Tiglath- 


154 


CHALD^A,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Hostility 
between 
Assyria 
and  Baby- 
lonia. 


Sculpture 

of 
Tiglath- 

Pileserl. 


Asshur- 
bil-kala. 

Monu- 
ments and 
Inscrip- 
tions of 
His  Reign. 


Shamas- 
Vull. 


Pileser's  baggage  during  his  retreat  from  Babylon.  The  images  of 
the  gods  which  Tiglath-Pileser  had  carried  with  him  in  his  expedition 
against  Babylonia,  to  secure  him  victory  by  their  presence,  were  cap- 
tured by  Merodach-iddin-akhi,  who  carried  them  to  Babylon,  where 
they  remained  over  four  centuries  as  mementoes  of  victory.  The  Syn- 
chronistic Tablet,  the  chief  authority  for  this  war,  says  nothing  of 
the  capture  of  these  idols,  but  this  fact  is  mentioned  in  a  rock  inscrip- 
tion of  Sennacherib's  at  Bavain,  near  Khorsabad. 

Thenceforth  a  spirit  of  hostility  and  jealous  rivalry  marked  the 
relations  between  Assyria  and  Babylonia,  and  no  more  intermarriages 
occurred  between  their  royal  families,  while  wars  between  them  were 
almost  constant,  nearly  every  Assyrian  king  of  whose  history  we  pos- 
sess detailed  knowledge  leading  one  or  more  expeditions  into  Baby- 
lonia. 

In  a  cavern  from  which  rises  the  Tsupnat,  or  eastern  branch  of  the 
Tigris,  near  the  village  of  Korkhar,  about  fifty  or  sixty  miles  north 
of  Diarbekr,  is  a  bas-relief  sculptured  on  rock  smoothed  for  the  pur- 
pose, consisting  of  a  figure  of  Tiglath-Pileser  I.  in  his  priestly  dress, 
with  the  right  arm  extended  and  the  left  hand  grasping  the  sacrificial 
mace,  with  the  following  inscription:  "By  the  grace  of  Asshur, 
Shamas  and  Vul,  the  Great  Gods,  I,  Tiglath-Pileser,  King  of  Assyria, 
son  of  Asshur-ris-ilim,  King  of  Assyria,  who  was  the  son  of  Mutaggil- 
Nebo,  King  of  Assyria,  marching  from  the  great  sea  of  Akhiri"  (the 
Mediterranean)  "to  the  sea  of  Nai'ri"  (Lake  of  Van),  "for  the  third 
time  have  invaded  the  country  of  Nai'ri." 

Tiglath-Pileser  I.  was  succeeded  on  the  Assyrian  throne  by  his  son 
ASSHUR-BIL-KALA,  of  whom  very  little  is  known  besides  his  war  with 
Merodach-shapik-ziri,  king  of  Babylonia,  the  successor  of  Merodach- 
iddin-akhi.  This  war  is  recorded  on  the  Synchronistic  Tablet,  along 
with  the  wars  of  Asshur-bil-kala's  father  and  grandfather,  but  the  in- 
jured condition  of  this  portion  of  the  tablet  prevents  us  getting  details 
from  it.  A  monument  of  Asshur-bil-kala's  time — one  of  the  oldest 
Assyrian  sculptures  yet  remaining — bears  witness  that  he  was  actuated 
by  the  same,  religious  spirit  displayed  by  his  father,  and  that  he  also 
adorned  temples  and  set  up  images  of  the  gods.  A  mutilated  female 
figure,  supposed  to  be  the  image  of  the  goddess  Ishtar,  discovered  by 
Mr.  Loftus  at  Koyunjik,  and  now  in  the  British  Museum,  bears  a 
dedicatory  inscription,  almost  illegible,  from  which  it  appears  to  have 
been  set  up  by  Asshur-bil-kala,  the  son  of  Tiglath-Pileser  I.  and  grand- 
son of  Asshur-ris-ilim. 

It  is  supposed  that  Asshur-bil-kala  reigned  from  about  B.  C.  1110 
to  B.  C.  1090.  His  successor  seems  to  have  been  his  younger  brother, 
SHAMAS-VUL  I.,  of  whom  nothing  is  known  except  his  building  or 


THE    OLD    ASSYRIAN    EMPIRE. 


155 


repairing  a  temple  at  Nineveh.  He  is  thought  to  have  reigned  from 
B.  C.  1090  to  B.  C.  1070;  being  thus  contemporary  with  Samuel  or 
Saul  in  Israel.  During  the  eleventh  century  before  Christ,  Assyria 
for  a  time  passed  under  a  cloud,  and  its  ancient  glories  were  then 
eclipsed  by  the  imperial  splendor  of  the  Israelitish  kingdom  under 
David  and  Solomon.  For  two  centuries,  between  the  reigns  of  Shamas- 
Vul  I.  and  Tiglathi-Nin  II.,  who,  according  to  the  Assyrian  Canon, 
ascended  the  throne  of  Assyria  in  B.  C.  889,  Assyrian  history  is  a 
blank.  The  very  names  of  the  kings  are  almost  entirely  unknown  to 
us  for  three-fourths  of  this  period,  from  about  B.  C.  1070  to  B.  C.  930. 
The  inscription  of  Shalmaneser  II.,  the  Black-Obelisk  king,  speaks  of 
certain  cities  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Euphrates  being  taken  from 
ASSHUR-MAZUR,  whose  reign  has  been  assigned  to  this  period. 

While  Assyria,  from  the  absence  of  records,  at  this  time  had  ap- 
parently sunk  into  insignificance,  her  influence  seems  to  have  extended 
into  Egypt,  whose  kings  of  the  Twenty-second  Dynasty  beginning 
with  Sheshonk  I.,  or  Shishak,  a  contemporary  of  Solomon,  married 
Assyrian  women  of  royal  or  noble  birth,  who  gave  Assyrian  names  to 
their  children,  thus  introducing  Semitic  names  in  Egyptian  dynastic 
lists. 

When  Assyria  again  emerged  from  darkness  with  the  accession  of 
ASSHUR-DAYAN  II.  about  B.  C.  930,  Asshur  was  still  the  capital  of 
the  kingdom.  Asshur-dayan  II.  was  the  first  of  a  series  of  kings  who 
repaired  and  enlarged  public  edifices,  which  is  recorded  to  their  honor 
in  the  inscription  of  a  subsequent  sovereign.  Asshur-dayan  II. 
reigned  from  B.  C.  930  to  B.  C.  911.  His  son  and  successor,  VUL- 
iusH  II.,  occupied  the  throne  from  B.  C/911  to  B.  C.  889.  Nothing 
is  yet  known  of  the  history  of  these  two  kings,  no  historical  inscrip- 
tions of  their  reigns  being  yet  found,  and  no  exploits  being  recorded 
of  them  in  the  inscriptions  of  later  sovereigns. 

TIGLATHI-NIN  II.,  the  successor  of  Vul-lush  II.,  reigned  only  six 
years ;  but  according  to  the  inscriptions  of  his  son  and  successor, 
Asshur-izir-pal,  on  the  Nimrud  monolith,  he  recorded  his  military  ex- 
ploits and  also  the  fact  that  he  set  up  his  sculptures  at  the  sources 
of  the  Tsupnat  river  beside  the  sculptures  set  up  by  his  ancestors, 
Tiglath-Pileser  I.  and  Tiglathi-Nin  I.  The  Assyrian  Canon  assigns 
the  reign  of  Tiglathi-Nin  II.  between  the  years  B.  C.  889  and  B.  C. 
883. 

ASSHUR-IZIR-FA:L,  the  son  and  successor  of  Tiglathi-Nin  II.,  reigned 
twenty-five  years,  from  B.  C.  883  to  B.  C.  858,  which  period  is  one 
of  the  most  flourishing  in  the  annals  of  the  Assyrian  Empire.  Asshur- 
izir-pal  was  an  active  and  energetic  monarch,  and  did  not  allow  him- 
self any  repose.  The  limits  and  influence  of  Assyria  were  expanded 
1-13 


Tempo- 
rary 

Eclipse  of 
Assyria. 


Royal  In- 
termar- 
riages 
with  the 
Kings  of 
Egypt. 


Asshur- 
Dayan  II. 


Vul-lush 
II. 


Tiglathi- 
Nin  II. 


Asshur- 
izir-pal. 

Sudden 
Recovery 

of 
Assyria. 


156 


Conquest 
of  the 

Numi, 
Elami  and 
Kirkhi  of 
Armenia. 


Other 

Con- 
quests in 
Armenia. 

Conquest 
of  the 
Laki  of 

Mesopota- 
mia. 


Recon- 
quest  of 
theNairi. 


CHALD^EA,   ASSYRIA,   BABYLONIA. 

in  every  direction,  and  her  progress  in  wealth  and  the  arts  was  so  rapid 
that  she  suddenly  attained  a  point  not  previously  reached  by  any 
people.  The  size,  magnificence  and  excellent  artistic  embellishment 
of  Asshur-izir-pal's  architectural  structures,  the  high  skill  in  the  prac- 
tical arts  which  they  exhibit,  the  pomp  and  splendor  of  this  reign 
which  they  imply,  have  excited  the  wonder  and  admiration  of  modern 
Europe,  which  has  seen  that  the  Assyrians  nine  centuries  before  Christ, 
or  nearly  twenty-eight  centuries  ago,  had  reached  a  degree  of  advance- 
ment in  the  inventions  and  arts  of  practical  life  equal  to  the  boasted 
achievements  of  the  modern  ages. 

Asshur-izir-pal's  first  campaign  was  in  the  north,  in  portions  of 
Armenia,  where  he  says  he  penetrated  a  region  "never  approached 
by  the  kings  his  fathers."  Here  he  easily  subdued  the  mountaineers, 
the  Numi,  or  Elami,  and  the  Kirkhi,  from  whom  has  been  derived  the 
name  of  the  modern  Kurkh,  as  applied  to  some  ruins  on  the  west  bank 
of  the  Tigris,  about  twenty  miles  below  Diarbekr,  some  remains  of 
which  have  been  transferred  to  the  British  Museum.  Asshur-izir-pal 
took  and  destroyed  the  fortresses  of  these  mountain  tribes,  and  one 
captive  was  taken  to  Arbela,  where  he  was  flayed  and  hung  up  on  the 
town  wall. 

Asshur-izir-pal's  second  expedition  occurred  in  the  same  year  as  the 
first,  and  was  directed  against  the  tribes  to  the  west  and  north-west 
of  Assyria.  He  first  overran  the  countries  of  Qummukh,  Serki  and 
Sidikan,  or  Arban,  and  reduced  them  to  tribute.  Then  he  took  the 
field  against  the  Laki  of  Central  Mesopotamia,  where  the  people  of 
the  city  of  Assura  had  rebelled,  killed  their  governor,  and  invited  a 
foreigner  to  govern  them.  The  rebels  submitted  on  Asshur-izir-pal's 
approach  and  surrendered  to  him  their  city  and  their  new  ruler,  who 
was  carried  in  fetters  to  Nineveh.  The  rebellious  inhabitants  were 
cruelly  punished  by  Asshur-izir-pal,  who  plundered  the  city,  gave  the 
houses  of  the  rebel  leaders  to  his  own  officers,  placed  an  Assyrian  gov- 
ernor over  the  city,  crucified  some  of  the  inhabitants,  burned  others, 
and  cut  off  the  ears  and  noses  of  the  remainder.  The  other  kings  of 
the  Laki  submitted,  and  sent  in  their  tribute  readily,  though  it  was  "a 
heavy  and  much-increased  burden." 

In  the  second  year  Asshur-izir-pal  undertook  a  third  expedition. 
Marching  northward,  he  reduced  to  submission  the  kings  of  the  Nai'ri, 
who  had  recovered  their  independence,  and  exacted  from  them  a  yearly 
tribute  in  gold,  silver,  horses,  cattle  and  other  commodities.  Ascend- 
ing the  Tsupnat  river,  or  Eastern  Tigris,  he  set  up  his  memorial 
beside  monuments  hitherto  erected  on  the  same  site  by  Tiglath-Pileser 
I.  and  by  the  first  or  second  Tiglathi-Nin.  The  inscriptions  also  give 
Asshur-izir-pal's  own  account  of  his  severe  treatment  of  the  revolted 


THE    OLD    ASSYRIAN    EMPIRE. 


157 


city  of  Tela,  upon  retaking  it,  in  the  following  words:  "Their  men, 
young  and  old,  I  took  prisoners.  Of  some  I  cut  off  the  feet  and 
hands ;  of  others  I  cut  off  the  noses,  ears  and  lips ;  of  the  young  men's 
ears  I  made  a  heap ;  of  the  old  men's  heads  I  made  a  minaret.  I  ex- 
posed their  heads  as  a  trophy  in  front  of  their  city.  The  male  chil- 
dren and  the  female  children  I  burnt  in  the  flames.  The  city  I  de- 
stroyed, and  consumed,  and  burnt  with  fire." 

Asshur-izir-pal's  fourth  campaign  was  in  the  south-east,  where  he 
crossed  the  Lesser  Zab  and  entered  the  Zagros  range,  ravaged  the  fruit- 
ful valleys  with  fire  and  sword,  took  many  towns,  and  exacted  tribute 
from  a  dozen  petty  kings.  On  his  return,  he  built  a  city  which  the 
Babylonian  king  Tsibir  had  destroyed  at  an  early  period,  and  named 
it  Dur-Asshur,  in  gratitude  for  the  protection  bestowed  upon  him  by 
Asshur,  "the  Great  Lord,"  "the  chief  of  the  gods." 

Asshur-izir-pal's  fifth  campaign  was  directed  to  the  north.  Cross- 
ing the  country  of  the  Qummukh  and  receiving  their  tribute,  the  war- 
like king  invaded  the  Mons  Masius  and  took  the  cities  of  Maty  at  (now 
Mediyat)  and  Kapranisa.  He  then  crossed  the  Tigris  and  warred 
along  the  Niphates  ranges  against  the  people  of  Kasiyara  and  other 
enemies.  He  next  invaded  the  country  of  the  Nai'ri,  where  he  says 
he  destroyed  two  hundred  and  fifty  strong  walled  cities,  and  put  to 
death  many  princes. 

Asshur-izir-pal's  sixth  campaign  was  in  the  west.  He  started  from 
Calah  (now  Nimrud),  where  he  crossed  the  Tigris,  marched  through 
Central  Mesopotamia,  received  tribute  from  many  subject  towns, 
among  which  were  Sidikan  (now  Arban),  Sirki  and  Anat  (now  Anah). 
He  then  entered  the  territories  of  the  Tsukhi,  or  Shuhites,  took  their 
city  Tsur,  and  compelled  them  to  surrender,  although  they  were  aided 
by  the  Babylonians;  after  which  he  invaded  Babylonia,  or  Chaldaea, 
and  chastised  its  people. 

His  seventh  campaign  was  likewise  against  the  Shuhites,  who  had 
rebelled  against  the  Assyrian  yoke  and  invaded  the  Assyrian  terri- 
tories, being  aided  by  their  north-eastern  neighbors,  the  Laki.  The 
allied  army  numbered  twenty  thousand  men,  including  many  warriors 
who  fought  in  chariots.  Asshur-izir-pal  first  reduced  the  cities  on  the 
east  bank  of  the  Euphrates,  and,  as  he  says,  "made  a  desert"  of  the 
banks  of  the  Khabour,  and  impaled  thirty  of  the  chief  captives  on 
stakes,  in  punishment  for  the  rebellion.  He  then  crossed  the  river 
on  rafts  and  defeated  the  Tsukhi  and  their  allies  with  great  slaughter, 
many  of  them  being  drowned  in  their  flight  across  the  river.  Six 
thousand  five  hundred  of  the  rebels  were  killed  in  the  battle,  and  the 
west  bank  of  the  river  was  frightfully  ravaged  with  fire  and  sword; 
cities  and  castles  were  burned,  men  were  massacred,  and  women,  chil- 


Con- 
quests 
in  the 
Zagros 
Region. 


Con- 
quests in 
Armenia. 


Con- 
quests in 
Mesopota- 
mia and 
Baby- 
lonia. 


Conquest 
of  the 
Tsukhi 
and  the 

Laki. 


158 


CHALD^A,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Conquest 
of  the 
Beth- 
Adina. 


Conquest 

of  the 
Hittites 
and  the 

Patena  of 
Syria. 


Con- 
quests in 
the  Upper 
Tigris 
Region. 

Hunting 
Exploits. 


dren  and  cattle  were  carried  away.  One  king  of  the  Laki  escaped,  but 
another  was  carried  in  captivity  to  Assyria.  An  increased  rate  of 
tribute  was  exacted  of  the  conquered  people,  and  two  new  cities  were 
built  by  the  Assyrian  king,  one  on  either  bank  of  the  Euphrates,  the 
one  on  the  east  bank  being  named  after  the  king,  and  the  one  on  the 
west  bank  after  the  god  Asshur. 

Asshur-izir-pal's  eighth  campaign  was  higher  up  the  Euphrates, 
where  the  Assyrian  monarch  invaded  the  country  of  the  Beth-Adina, 
to  punish  its  people  for  giving  refuge  to  Hazilu,  the  king  of  the  Laki 
who  had  escaped  capture  after  his  defeat  in  the  previous  war.  As- 
shur-izir-pal  beseiged  the  people  of  Beth-Adina  in  their  chief  city, 
Kabrabi,  which  he  soon  took  and  burned.  The  part  of  Beth-Adina 
east  of  the  Euphrates,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  modern  Balis,  was  over- 
run and  annexed  to  the  Assyrian  Empire,  and  two  thousand  five  hun- 
dred captives  were  settled  at  Calah. 

Asshur-izir-pal's  ninth  and  most  interesting  campaign  was  the  one 
against  Syria.  After  marching  across  Northern  Mesopotamia,  and 
receiving  tributes  from  various  nations  and  tribes  on  the  way,  the  As- 
syrian king  crossed  the  Euphrates  on  rafts  and  entered  the  city  of 
Carchemish,  where  he  received  the  submission  of  the  Hittite  king, 
Sangara,  whose  capital  was  that  city,  and  of  many  other  princes, 
"who  came  reverently  and  kissed  his  scepter."  Then  he  "gave  com- 
mand to  advance  toward  Lebanon."  He  entered  the  country  of  the 
Patena,  which  embraced  the  region  about  Antioch  and  Aleppo,  and 
took  their  capital,  Kinalua,  located  between  the  Abri  (or  Afrin)  and 
Orontes ;  whereupon  the  rebel  king,  Lubarna,  in  alarm,  submitted  and 
agreed  to  pay  a  tribute.  The  Assyrian  monarch  then  crossed  the 
Orontes  and  destroyed  some  of  the  cities  of  the  Patena,  and  marched 
along  the  northern  flank  of  Lebanon  to  the  Mediterranean.  In  this 
region  he  built  altars  and  offered  sacrifices  to  the  gods,  and  then  re- 
ceived the  submission  of  the  leading  Phoenician  states,  such  as  Tyre, 
Sidon,  Byblus  and  Aradus.  He  then  went  inland,  and  cut  timber,  set 
up  sculptured  memorials,  and  offered  sacrifice  on  the  Amanus  moun- 
tains. Among  the  plunder  which  he  carried  to  Assyria  were  cedar 
beams  for  his  public  buildings  at  Nineveh. 

Asshur-izir-pal's  tenth  campaign,  and  the  last  recorded,  was  in  the 
region  of  the  Upper  Tigris,  where  he  defeated  his  enemies  and  over- 
came all  resistance,  burned  cities  and  carried  away  many  captives. 
The  chief  "royal  city"  which  he  assailed  was  Amidi,  now  Diarbekr. 

During  all  his  ten  campaigns,  which  were  prosecuted  during  the 
first  six  years  of  his  reign,  Asshur-izir-pal  indulged  in  the  sports  of 
the  chase.  He  records  among  his  inscriptions  that  on  one  occasion 
he  killed  fifty  large  wild  bulls  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Euphrates,  and 


THE   OLD   ASSYRIAN   EMPIRE. 


159 


captured  eight  of  the  same  kind  of  beasts;  while  at  another  time  he 
slew  twenty  ostriches  and  captured  as  many.  This  monarch's  sculp- 
tures bear  testimony  that  hunting  the  wild  bull  was  a  favorite  recrea- 
tion with  him.  He  had  a  menagerie  park  in  the  vicinity  of  Nineveh,  in 
which  he  kept  various  strange  animals.  He  received,  as  tribute  from 
the  Phoenicians,  animals  called  paguts  or  pagdts — believed  to  be  ele- 
phants— which  were  placed  in  this  zoological  enclosure,  where  he  says 
they  throve  and  bred.  A  certain  King  of  Egypt  sent  him  a  present 
of  curious  animals  when  he  was  in  Southern  Syria.  In  an  obelisk  in- 
scription, designed  to  commemorate  a  great  hunting  expedition,  he  says 
he  took  all  sorts  of  antelopes  to  Asshur  and  killed  lions,  wild  sheep,  red 
deer,  fallow  deer,  wild  goats,  or  ibexes,  leopards,  large  and  small,  bears, 
wolves,  jackals,  wild  boars,  ostriches,  foxes,  hyenas,  wild  asses,  and 
other  animals  not  yet  identified.  An  inscription  of  his  at  Nimrud 
informs  us  that  in  another  hunting  expedition  he  slew  three  hundred 
and  sixty  large  lions,  two  hundred  and  fifty-seven  large  wild  cattle, 
and  thirty  buffaloes ;  and  that  he  sent  to  Calah  fifteen  full-grown  lions, 
fifty  young  lions,  some  leopards,  several  pairs  of  wild  buffaloes  and  wild 
cattle,  along  with  ostriches,  wolves,  red  deer,  bears,  cheetas  and 
hyenas.  Thus,  like  his  distinguished  ancestor,  Tiglath-Pileser  I., 
Asshur-izir-pal  was  renowned  alike  as  a  warrior  and  a  hunter. 

Asshur-izir-pal  surpassed  his  predecessors  in  the  grandeur  of  his 
public  edifices,  and  the  profusion  of  sculpture  and  painting  in  their 
embellishment.  The  structures  of  the  earlier  Assyrian  kings  at  Asshur 
were  far  inferior  to  the  buildings  of  Assur-izir-pal  and  his  successors 
at  Calah,  Nineveh  and  Dur-Surgina.  The  mounds  of  Kileh-Sherghat 
have  not  revealed  bas-reliefs  or  traces  of  buildings  which  can  be  com- 
pared with  those  which  excite  the  wonder  of  the  traveler  at  Nimrud, 
Koyunjik  and  Khorsabad.  Asshur-izir-pal's  great  palace  was  at 
Calah  (now  Nimrud),  which  he  raised  from  the  condition  of  a  pro- 
vincial town  to  that  of  a  metropolis  of  his  empire.  This  palace  was 
three  hundred  and  sixty  feet  long  and  three  hundred  feet  wide,  had 
seven  or  eight  large  halls,  and  many  more  small  chambers  grouped 
round  a  central  court  one  hundred  and  thirty  feet  long  and  almost  one 
hundred  feet  broad.  The  longest  hall  faced  toward  the  north, 
was  the  first  room  entered  upon  coming  from  the  city,  and 
measured  one  hundred  and  fifty-four  feet  in  length  and  thirty- 
three  feet  in  breadth.  The  others  were  of  different  dimensions,  some 
almost  as  spacious  as  the  largest  one,  while  the  smallest  room  had  a 
length  of  sixty-five  feet  with  a  breadth  of  less  than  twenty  feet.  The 
chambers  were  nearly  or  altogether  square,  and  none  of  them  were  more 
than  thirty  feet  in  their  greatest  dimensions.  The  entire  palace  was 
raised  upon  a  high  platform,  constructed  of  sun-dried  bricks,  but 


Asshur- 
izir-pal's 

Great 
Palace  at 

Calah. 


160  CHALD^EA,   ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 

cased  on  the  outside  with  hewn  stone.  Of  the  two  grand  facades,  one 
faced  the  north,  and  on  that  side  was  an  ascent  to  the  platform  from 
the  town;  the  other,  in  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Layard,  faced  the  Tigris, 
which  in  ancient  times  flowed  at  the  foot  of  the  platform  toward  the 
west.  On  the  northern  front  were  two  or  three  great  gateways  flanked 
with  andro-sphinxes,  or  sculptured  figures  representing  the  body  of  a 
winged  lion  with  the  head  of  a  man.  These  gateways  led  to  the  prin- 
cipal hall  or  audience  chamber,  which  was  lined  throughout  with 
sculptured  slabs  illustrating  the  king's  various  deeds,  and  which  con- 
tained at  the  eastern  end  a  raised  stone  platform  cut  into  steps  or 
stages,  which  Layard  believes  was  designed  to  support  the  monarch's 
carved  throne.  A  grand  portal  in  the  southern  wall  of  the  chamber, 
guarded  on  either  side  by  sculptured  representations  of  winged  man- 
headed  bulls  carved  out  of  yellow  limestone,  opened  the  way  into  a 
second  hall  much  smaller  than  the  first,  and  with  less  variety  of  orna- 
ment. This  second  hall  was  about  one  hundred  feet  long  by  twenty- 
five  broad,  and  all  the  slabs  which  adorned  it  were  ornamented  with 
colossal  eagle-headed  figures  in  pairs,  facing  one  another  and  separated 
by  the  sacred  tree.  This  second  hall  was  connected  with  the  central 
court  by  an  elegant  gateway  towards  the  south,  and  communicated 
likewise  with  a  third  hall  towards  the  east.  This  third  hall  was  one  of 
the  most  remarkable  apartments  of  the  palace,  and  was  better  propor- 
tioned than  most  of  the  others,  being  about  ninety  feet  long  by  twenty- 
six  wide.  It  ran  along  the  eastern  side  of  the  great  court,  with  which 
it  was  connected  by  two  gateways,  and  on  the  inside  it  was  ornamented 
with  more  elaborately  finished  sculptures  than  any  other  apartment  in 
the  palace.  Back  of  this  eastern  hall  was  another  hall  opening  into  it, 
somewhat  longer,  but  only  twelve  feet  broad ;  and  this  led  to  five  small 
chambers,  which  here  bounded  the  palace.  South  of  the  great  court 
were  also  two  halls  communicating  with  each  other,  but  these  were 
smaller  than  those  on  the  north  and  west,  and  were  less  profusely 
adorned.  Mr.  Layard  believes  that  there  were  also  two  or  three  halls 
on  the  west  side  of  the  court  toward  the  river.  Nearly  every  hall  had 
one  or  two  small  chambers  adjoining  it,  which  were  generally  at  the 
ends  of  the  halls,  and  communicated  with  them  by  large  doorways. 
The  grand  halls  of  this  palace,  so  narrow  for  their  length,  were  deco- 
rated on  all  sides,  first  with  sculptures  as  high  as  nine  or  ten  feet,  and 
then  with  enameled  bricks  or  patterns  painted  in  frescoes  to  the  height 
of  seven  or  eight  feet  more.  The  rooms  were  sixteen  or  eighteen  feet 
high.  The  square  chambers  had  no  other  embellishments  than  inscribed 
alabaster  slabs. 

HisSculp-        Asshur-izir-pal's  sculptures  display  great  boldness,  force  and  spirit, 
ures*      but   are  usually   clumsily   drawn   and   roughly   executed-      Assyrian 


THE    OLD    ASSYRIAN    EMPIRE. 


161 


mimetic  art  suddenly  sprung  up  at  this  period,  the  only  specimens 
more  ancient  than  this  monarch  being  the  rock-tablet  of  Tiglath-Pileser 
L,  already  referred  to,  and  the  mutilated  female  statue  brought  from 
Koyunjik  to  the  British  Museum  and  inscribed  with  the  name  of 
Asshur-bil-kala,  the  son  and  successor  of  Tiglath-Pileser  I.  Asshur- 
izir-pal's  ornamentation  was  his  own  invention.  Not  a  solitary  frag- 
ment of  a  sculptured  slab  has  been  found  about  the  mounds  of  Kileh- 
Sherghat,  while  bricks  have  been  found  in  abundance.  This  monarch 
was  the  first  to  use  bas-reliefs  on  a  large  scale  for  architectural  orna- 
mentation, and  to  employ  them  to  illustrate  the  history  of  the  mon- 
arch. This  king  likewise  adorned  his  edifices  by  means  of  enameled 
bricks  and  painted  frescoes  upon  plaster. 

Asshur-izir-pal's  sculptures  attest  the  surprising  advance  made  in 
manufactures  by  the  Assyrians  at  this  early  period.  The  metallurgy 
of  the  time  is  represented  by  swords,  sword-sheaths,  daggers,  earrings, 
necklaces,  armlets  and  bracelets.  The  chariots,  the  harness  of  the 
horses,  and  the  embroidery  which  adorned  the  robes,  further  attest  the 
mechanical  skill  of  the  Assyrians  in  the  age  of  this  famous  king. 
The  sculptures  bear  testimony  to  the  fact  that  this  ancient  people  at 
this  early  day  already  reveled  in  luxury,  and  that  in  the  useful  arts,  in 
dress,  furniture,  jewelry,  etc.,  they  were  not  far  behind  the  moderns. 

Besides  the  splendid  palace  which  he  erected  at  Calah,  Asshur-izir- 
pal  built  many  temples,  the  most  important  of  which  have  already  been 
described.  They  occupied  the  northwestern  corner  of  the  Nimrud 
platform,  and  consisted  of  two  structures ;  one  precisely  at  the  corner, 
embracing  the  higher  tower,  or  ziggurat,  which  stood  out  as  a  corner 
buttress  from  the  great  mound,  and  a  shrine  with  chambers  at  the 
tower's  base ;  the  other,  a  little  farther  to  the  east,  comprising  a  shrine 
and  chambers  without  a  tower.  The  tower  of  the  first  structure  was 
partly  built  by  Asshur-izir-pal's  son  and  successor,  Shalmaneser  II. 
These  temples  were  highly  adorned  with  embellishments,  both  internally 
and  externally ;  and  in  front  of  the  larger  one  was  an  erection  indi- 
cating that  the  Assyrian  kings  received  divine  honors  from  their  sub- 
jects. On  a  plain  square  pedestal  two  feet  high  was  raised  a  solid 
limestone  block  cut  in  the  form  of  an  arched  frame,  within  which  was 
carved  a  figure  of  the  king  in  sacerdotal  costume,  with  the  sacred  col- 
lar encircling  his  neck,  and  the  five  chief  divine  symbols  represented 
above  his  head.  In  front  of  this  figure  was  a  triangular  altar  with  a 
circular  top,  resembling  the  Grecian  tripod.  A  stele  of  Asshur-izir- 
pal,  resembling  the  figure  just  described,  has  been  brought  to  Eng- 
land from  Kurkh,  near  Diarbekr,  and  is  now  in  the  British  Museum. 

Asshur-izir-pal  built  a  temple  at  Nineveh,  which  was  dedicated  to 
the  goddess  Beltis.  A  white  stone  obelisk,  set  up  as  a  memorial  of  his 

VOL.    1.— 11 


Assyrian 
Progress. 


Asshur- 
izir-pal's 
Temples. 


His 
Obelbto. 


162 


CHALD^EA,   ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


His 

Tunnel 

and 
Canal. 


He  Makes 

Calah  the 
Assyrian 
Capital. 


His 
Death. 


Shalma- 
neser  II. 


reign,  is  now  in  the  British  Museum.  The  sculptures  and  inscriptions 
which  commemorated  his  military  and  hunting  exploits,  and  which 
covered  the  four  sides  of  this  monument,  are  now  almost  obliterated. 
The  obelisk  is  a  monolith,  twelve  or  thirteen  feet  high,  and  two  feet 
wide  on  the  broader  side  of  the  base  and  less  than  fourteen  inches  on 
the  narrower  side.  It  tapers  slightly  and  is  crowned  at  the  top  by 
three  steps  or  gradines.  Fragments  of  two  other  obelisks  erected  by 
this  great  monarch  were  discovered  at  Koyunjik  by  Mr.  Loftus,  and 
are  likewise  now  in  the  British  Museum.  One  of  these,  in  white  stone, 
had  sculptures  on  one  side  only,  being  mostly  covered  by  an  inscription 
recording  his  hunting  exploits  in  Syria  and  the  repairs  of  the  city  of 
Asshur.  The  other,  in  black  basalt,  had  sculptures  on  every  side  rep- 
resenting the  great  king  receiving  tribute-bearers. 

Asshur-izir-pal  constructed  a  tunnel  and  canal  by  which  the  water 
of  the  Greater  Zab  was  brought  to  Calah.  He  records  this  fact  in  his 
annals,  and  Sennacherib,  who  repaired  the  tunnel  two  centuries  later, 
set  up  therein  a  tablet  with  an  inscription  commemorating  Asshur- 
izir-pal  as  its  author. 

Asshur-izir-pal's  favorite  capital  was  Calah,  although  he  beautified 
Asshur,  the  old  capital,  and  the  rising  city  of  Nineveh.  The  continual 
spread  of  the  Assyrian  dominion  northward  necessitated  the  removal 
of  the  capital  to  a  more  central  point  than  Asshur ;  and  for  that  reason 
Calah,  which  was  forty  miles  further  north,  on  the  opposite  or  east  side 
of  the  Tigris,  was  selected  for  the  seat  of  government.  Calah,  located 
in  the  fertile  and  healthy  region  of  Adiabene,  near  the  junction  of  the 
greater  Zab  with  the  Tigris,  was  strongly  protected  by  nature,  being 
defended  on  either  side  by  a  deep  river.  The  new  capital  rapidly  grew 
to  greatness,  and  palace  after  palace  rose  on  its  high  platform,  pro^ 
fusely  embellished  with  carved  woodwork,  gilding,  painting,  sculpture 
and  enamel;  while  stone  lions,  sphinxes,  obelisks,  shrines  and  temple- 
towers  also  adorned  the  scene.  The  lofty  ziggurat  attached  to  the 
temple  of  Nin  stood  forth  preeminent  amid  the  varied  mass  of  royal 
palaces  and  sacred  temples,  giving  unity  to  the  whole. 

After  his  glorious  reign  of  twenty-five  years,  Asshur-izir-pal — who 
styled  himself  "  The  conqueror  from  the  upper  passage  of  the  Tigris 
to  Lebanon  and  the  Great  Sea,  who  has  reduced  under  his  authority  all 
countries  from  the  rising  of  the  sun  to  the  going  down  of  the  same  " — 
died  at  no  advanced  age,  and  was  succeeded  on  the  throne  by  his  son, 
SHALMANESEK  II. 

Shalmaneser  II.  inherited  the  warlike  spirit  and  genius  of  his  illus- 
trious father ;  and  during  his  reign  of  thirty-five  years,  from  B.  C.  858 
to  B.  C.  823,  he  conducted  twenty-three  military  expeditions  in  person, 
and  entrusted  four  others  to  a  favorite  general.  His  twenty-three 


THE    OLD    ASSYRIA^    EMPIRE. 


163 


expeditions  were  undertaken  during  the  first  twenty-seven  years  of 
his  reign,  and  were  directed  against  the  territories  of  neighboring  peo- 
ples. Babylonia,  Chaldasa,  Media,  the  Zimri,  Armenia,  Upper  Mesopo- 
tamia, the  country  of  the  Upper  Tigris,  the  Hittites,  the  Patena,  the 
Tibareni,  the  Hamathites,  and  the  Syrians  of  Damascus,  were  attacked 
by  the  armies  of  Shalmaneser  II.,  their  hosts  defeated,  their  cities  be- 
sieged and  taken,  their  kings  reduced  to  submission  and  forced  to  pay 
tribute. 

Shalmaneser  II.  took  tribute  from  the  Phoanician  cities  of  Tyre, 
Sidon  and  Byblus ;  from  the  Tsukhi,  or  Shuhites ;  from  the  people  of 
Muzr,  or  Musr;  from  the  Bartsu,  or  Partsu  (believed  to  be  the  Per- 
sians), and  from  the  Israelites.  He  thus  traversed  the  entire  region 
from  the  Persian  Gulf  on  the  south  to  the  Niphates  mountains  on 
the  north,  and  from  the  Zagros  range  on  the  east  to  the  Mediterranean 
sea  on  the  west.  Over  this  whole  vast  domain  he  made  his  power  felt, 
while  his  influence  extended  beyond  its  limits,  where  the  nations  feared 
and  respected  him  and  willingly  sought  his  favor  by  placing  them- 
selves under  his  protection.  In  the  closing  years  of  his  reign  he 
deputed  the  command  of  his  armies  to  his  favorite  general,  Dayan- 
Asshur,  in  whom  he  reposed  great  confidence.  Dayan-Asshur  held 
an  important  office  in  the  fifth  year  of  Shalmaneser's  reign ;  and  in  the 
twenty-seventh,  twenty-eighth,  thirtieth  and  thirty-first  he  was  sent 
with  an  army  against  the  Armenians,  the  rebellious  Patena,  and  the 
people  of  the  region  included  in  modern  Kurdistan.  In  his  twenty- 
ninth  year  the  king  himself  led  an  expedition  into  Khirki,  the 
Niphates  district,  where  he  "  overturned,  beat  to  pieces,  and  consumed 
with  fire  the  towns,  swept  the  country  with  his  troops,  and  impressed 
on  the  inhabitants  the  fear  of  his  presence." 

Shalmaneser's  most  interesting  campaigns  are  those  of  the  sixth, 
eighth,  ninth,  eleventh,  fourteenth,  eighteenth  and  twenty-first  years  of 
his  reign.  Two  of  these  campaigns  were  directed  against  Babylonia, 
three  against  Ben-hadad  of  Damascus,  and  two  against  Khazail 
(Hazael)  of  Damascus. 

In  his  eighth  year,  while  Babylonia  was  rent  by  a  civil  war  between 
King  Merodach-sum-adin  and  his  younger  brother,  Merodach-bel-usati, 
Shalmaneser  II.  invaded  that  kingdom  ostensibly  to  aid  its  legitimate 
sovereign,  but  really  for  his  own  aggrandizement.  He  at  once  seized 
several  Babylonian  towns,  and  in  the  following  year  he  defeated  and 
killed  the  pretender  to  the  Babylonian  crown,  entered  Babylon  and 
invaded  Chaldsea,  the  country  along  the  Persian  Gulf,  then  independent 
of  Babylon,  and  compelled  its  kings  to  become  his  tributaries.  He 
informs  us  in  his  inscriptions  that  "  the  power  of  his  army  struck 
terror  as  far  as  the  sea." 


His 

Twenty- 
three  Ex- 
peditions 
and  Con- 
quests. 


His  Ex- 
tensive 

Con- 
quests. 


Cam- 
paigns 
against 
Baby- 
lonia and 
Damas- 
cus. 

Success- 
ful Inva- 
sion of 
Baby- 
lonia 


164* 


CHALD^A,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Defeat  of 
thePa- 

tena,  Hit- 
tites,  Da- 
mascus 
and  the 
Phoeni- 
cians. 


Defeat  of 
Damas- 
cus, Ha- 
math and 
the  Hit- 
tites. 


Great 

Victory 

over  King 

Hazael  of 

Damas- 


Tribute 

from 

Jehu, 

King  of 

Israel. 


The  wars  of  Shalmaneser  II.  in  Southern  Syria  began  in  the  ninth 
year  of  his  reign.  He  had  extended  his  dominion  in  Northern  Syria 
over  the  Patena  and  most  of  the  Northern  Hittites.  Alarmed  at  the 
rapid  growth  of  the  Assyrian  power,  Ben-hadad,  King  of  Damascus ; 
Tsakhulena,  King  of  Hamath ;  Ahab,  King  of  Israel ;  the  kings  of  the 
Southern  Hittites ;  the  kings  of  the  Phoenician  cities  upon  the  coast,  and 
others,  formed  an  alliance,  but  their  combined  forces  were  defeated  by 
the  King  of  Assyria,  with  the  loss  of  twenty  thousand  men  killed  in 
battle,  while  many  chariots  and  much  war  material  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  victorious  Assyrians. 

Five  years  later,  in  the  eleventh  year  of  his  reign,  Shalmaneser  II. 
again  took  the  field  against  Hamath  and  the  Southern  Hittites.  Sud- 
denly invading  their  territories,  he  took  many  towns  without  resistance ; 
but  Ben-hadad  of  Damascus  joined  the  Hittites,  and  though  the  allies 
were  again  defeated  by  the  Assyrian  monarch,  the  latter  did  not  suc- 
ceed in  extending  his  sway  over  Southern  Syria.  Three  years  after- 
ward, Shalmaneser  II.  again  attempted  the  conquest  of  Southern  Syria. 
Collecting  his  people  "  in  multitudes  that  were  not  to  be  counted,"  he 
crossed  the  Euphrates  with  an  army  of  more  than  a  hundred  thousand 
men  and  marched  southwards.  This  time  he  gained  a  decisive  victory 
over  the  allied  armies  of  Ben-hadad  of  Damascus,  the  Hamathites  and 
the  Hittites,  who  fled  in  dismay,  losing  many  chariots  and  implements 
of  war.  The  coalition  at  once  fell  to  pieces,  and  the  Hamathites  and 
Hittites  submitted  to  the  conqueror's  yoke,  Damascus  being  deserted 
by  her  allies. 

The  next  year  Shalmaneser  II.  advanced  against  the  Syrians  of 
Damascus,  who  were  strongly  posted  in  the  Anti-Lebanon  fastnesses, 
and  were  under  the  leadership  of  their  new  king,  Hazael,  who  had  treach- 
erously murdered  Ben-hadad.  Hazael  raised  an  immense  army,  includ- 
ing over  eleven  hundred  chariots,  and  took  a  strong  position  in  the 
mountain  range  dividing  the  kingdoms  of  Damascus  and  Hamath,  where 
he  was  attacked  and  utterly  defeated  by  the  Assyrian  king,  losing  six- 
teen thousand  men,  eleven  hundred  and  twenty-one  chariots,  a  large 
amount  of  war  material  and  his  camp.  This  blow  completely  broke 
the  power  of  Damascus,  and  three  years  later  Hazael  made  no  resist- 
ance when  Shalmaneser  II.  again  invaded  Syria  and  took  and  plundered 
his  towns.  In  his  inscription  ShalmaiiCoer  II.  says :  "  I  went  to  the 
towns  of  Hazael  of  Damascus  and  took  part  of  his  provisions."  He 
next  says :  "  I  received  the  tributes  of  Tyre,  Sidon  and  Byblus."  Jehu, 
King  of  Israel — "  son  of  Omri,"  as  he  b  called  in  the  Assyrian  inscrip- 
tion— sent  a  quantity  of  gold  and  silver,  in  bullion  and  manufactured 
articles,  as  tributes  to  the  Assyrian  monarch.  Sculptures  at  Nimrud 
reoresent  the  Israelitish  ambassadors  presenting  this  tribute  to  Shal- 


THE   OLD   ASSYRIAN    EMPIRE.  !6 

maneser  II.,  the  articles  appearing  carried  in  the  hands  or  on  the 
shoulders  of  the  envoys. 

Like  his  distinguished  father,  Shalmaneser  II.  had  great  taste  for     Salama- 
architecture   and   the   other   arts.     He  completed  the  ziggurat  of  the    p°iaceat 
great  temple  of  Nin  at  Calah,  which  his  father  had  commenced.     He      Calah. 
also  built  a  more  splendid  palace  than  the  one  erected  by  his  father  on 
the  same  lofty  platform  of  that  city,  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  yards 
from  the  former  palace.     This  is  known  as  the  "  Central  Palace"  of  the 
Nimrud  platform,  and  was   discovered  by  Mr.   Layard  on  his   first 
expedition.     The  ruined  condition  of  this  magnificent  edifice  rendered 
it  impossible  for  its  modern  discoverer  to  obtain  a  clear  idea  of  its  orna- 
mentation.    Two  massive  winged  man-headed  bulls  partially  destroyed, 
in  the  grand  portals  of  this  great  structure,  and  the  sculptured  frag- 
ments of  bas-reliefs,  which  must  have  adorned  its  walls,  illustrate  its 
points  of  similarity  to  Asshur-izir-pal's  great  edifice.     The  sculptures 
of  Shalmaneser's  palace  were  on  a  grander  scale  and  more  mythological 
than  those  of  his  father's  building. 

A  famous  monument  of  Shalmaneser  II.  is  an  obelisk  in  black  mar-  Black 
ble,  in  shape  and  general  arrangement  resembling  that  of  his  father  g^ma^ 
already  described,  but  of  a  handsomer  and  better  material.  This  obe-  neser  II. 
lisk  was  discovered  lying  prostrate  under  the  rubbish  covering  Shalman- 
eser's palace.  It  contained  bas-reliefs  in  twenty  compartments,  five  on 
each  of  its  four  sides,  the  space  about  them  being  covered  with  minute 
cuneiform  inscriptions ;  the  whole  in  an  excellent  state  of  preservation. 
It  is  somewhat  smaller  than  Asshur-izir-pal's  obelisk,  being  only  seven 
feet  high  and  twenty-two  inches  on  its  broad  face.  Its  proportions 
make  it  more  solid-looking  and  taper  less  than  the  former  obelisk.  The 
bas-reliefs  represent  Shalmaneser  II.,  accompanied  by  his  vizier  and 
other  chief  officers,  receiving  tribute  from  five  nations,  whose  envoys 
are  ushered  into  the  royal  presence  by  officials  of  the  court,  and  pros- 
trate themselves  at  the  feet  of  the  Great  King  before  they  present  their 
offerings.  The  gifts  are  mostly  articles  of  gold,  silver,  copper  bars 
and  cubes,  goblets,  elephants'  tusks,  tissues,  etc.,  and  are  carried  in 
the  hand;  but  there  are  also  animals,  such  as  horses,  camels,  monkeys 
and  baboons  of  various  types,  stags,  lions,  wild  bulls,  antelopes,  and 
the  rhinoceros  and  elephant.  As  already  related,  the  Israelites  are 
one  of  the  nations  offering  tribute.  The  others  will  now  be  noticed. 
The  people  of  Kirzan,  a  country  adjoining  Armenia,  present  gold, 
silver,  copper,  horses  and  camels,  and  occupy  the  four  highest  com- 
partments with  nine  envoys.  The  Muzri,  or  people  of  Muzr,  or 
Musr,  as  we  have  observed,  almost  in  the  same  region,  bring  various 
wild  animals  and  fill  the  four  central  compartments  with  six  envoys. 
The  Tsukhi,  or  Shuhites,  from  the  Euphrates,  are  represented  by  thir- 


166 


CHALD^A,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


His 
Capitals. 


Rebellion 
of  the 
Crown- 
Prince. 


Shamas- 
Vul  II. 


Assyria's 
Domin- 
ions. 


teen  envoys,  bringing  two  lions,  a  stag  and  various  precious  objects, 
such  as  metal  bars,  elephant  tusks,  and  shawls  or  tissues ;  and  are  given 
four  compartments  below  the  Muzri.  The  Patena,  from  the  Orontes, 
fill  three  of  the  lowest  compartments,  with  a  train  of  twelve  envoys 
bearing  gifts  similar  to  those  of  the  Israelites.  A  stele  of  Shalmaneser 
II.,  closely  resembling  those  of  his  father,  was  brought  to  the  British 
Museum  from  Kurkh  in  1863. 

Calah,  where  he  and  his  father  built  their  great  palaces,  was  the 
usual  capital  of  Shalmaneser  II. ;  but  he  sometimes  held  his  court  in 
the  new  city  of  Nineveh,  and  also  in  the  old  capital,  Asshur.  At  the 
latter  place  he  left  a  monument  in  the  shape  of  a  stone  statue  represent- 
ing a  king  seated,  which  was  found  by  Mr.  Layard  in  a  mutilated  con- 
dition. In  his  later  years  Shalmaneser  II.  was  troubled  by  a  dangerous 
rebellion  of  his  eldest  son,  the  heir  apparent  to  the  crown,  Asshur-danin- 
pal.  The  rebellious  prince  had  a  powerful  popular  support,  and  was 
proclaimed  king  at  Asshur,  at  Arbela  in  the  Zab  region,  at  Amidi  on 
the  Upper  Tigris,  at  Tel-Apni  near  the  site  of  Orfa,  and  in  more  than 
a  score  of  other  fortified  places.  The  aged  monarch  called  his  second 
son,  Shamas- Vul,  to  the  command  of  the  loyal  troops,  and  this  prince 
reduced  the  rebellious  cities  in  succession  and  soon  completely  crushed 
the  revolt.  Asshur-danin-pal,  the  rebellious  crown-prince,  forfeited 
his  claims  to  the  crown  by  this  treason,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been 
put  to  death;  while  his  younger  brother  and  conqueror,  Shamas- Vul, 
became  the  heir  to  his  father's  kingdom,  to  which  he  shortly  afterwards 
succeeded,  upon  Shalmaneser's  death,  in  B.  C.  823,  after  an  active  and 
glorious  reign  of  thirty-five  years. 

SHAMUS-VUL  II.  reigned  thirteen  years,  from  B.  C.  823  to  B.  C.  810. 
We  will  now  briefly  notice  the  extent  of  the  Assyrian  dominion  at  his 
accession.  Since  the  time  of  Tiglath-Pileser  I.  the  limits  of  the  As- 
syrian Empire  had  been  extended  in  different  directions,  but  mainly 
toward  the  west  and  the  north-west.  In  this  direction  the  Assyrian 
limits  had  been  pushed  beyond  the  Euphrates  over  all  Northern  Syria, 
over  Phoenicia,  Hamath,  and  Samaria,  or  the  Israelite  kingdom.  These 
countries  were  not,  however,  reduced  to  the  condition  of  provinces ;  they 
still  remained  under  their  own  native  kings,  and  retained  their  admin- 
istration and  laws;  but  they  were  virtually  subject  to  Assyria,  as  they 
acknowledged  the  suzerainty  of  the  Assyrian  monarch,  paid  him  an 
annual  tribute,  and  allowed  his  armies  a  free  passage  through  their  ter- 
ritories. On  the  west  the  Assyrian  Empire  extended  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean, from  the  Gulf  of  Iskanderun  to  Cape  Carmel  or  to  Joppa. 
The  northwestern  boundary  was  the  Taurus  mountain  range  beyond 
Amanus,  the  region  between  the  two  belonging  to  the  Tibareni 
(Tubal),  who  had  submitted  as  tributaries.  The  northern  limits  were 


THE   OLD   ASSYRIAN   EMPIRE. 


167 


the  Niphates  range — "  the  high  grounds  over  the  affluents  of  the  Ti- 
gris and  the  Euphrates  " — where  Shalmaneser  II.  set  up  "  an  image  of 
his  majesty."  The  eastern  frontier  was  in  the  central  Zagros  region, 
the  tract  between  the  Lower  Zab  and  Holwan,  then  called  Hupuska. 
On  the  south  the  Assyrian  kingdom  was  still  bounded  by  the  territories 
of  the  Babylonians  and  Chaldaeans,  who  yet  remained  unconquered. 

These  conquests  and  changes,  which  converted  Assyria's  former  ene- 
mies into  subjects,  brought  the  empire  into  contact  with  new  enemies 
on  her  western,  northern  and  eastern  sides.  In  the  west  the  Assyrians 
came  in  collision  with  the  Syrians  of  Damascus,  and  with  the  king- 
dom of  Judah,  through  their  tributary,  Samaria,  or  Israel.  In  the 
north-west  they  found  new  foes  in  the  Qui'n,  or  Coans,  who  occupied 
the  farther  side  of  Amanus,  near  the  Tibareni,  in  a  portion  of  what  was 
subsequently  called  Cilicia,  and  the  Cilicians  also,  who  are  now  first 
mentioned.  The  Moschi  had  migrated  from  this  section.  On  the 
north  the  Armenians  were  at  this  time  Assyria's  only  neighbors.  To- 
ward the  east  were  the  Mannai,  or  Minni,  about  Lake  Urumiyeh;  the 
Kharkhar,  in  the  Van  region  and  in  North-western  Kurdistan;  the 
Bartsu,  or  Persians,  then  in  South-eastern  Armenia;  the  Mada,  or 
Medes,  east  of  the  Zagros ;  and  the  Tsimri,  or  Zimri,  in  Upper  Luris- 
tan.  These  new  neighbors  and  enemies  were  all  weak,  and  no  power- 
fully-organized monarchy  at  this  time  existed  to  contest  with  Assyria 
the  dominion  of  Western  Asia.  The  Medes  and  Persians,  afterwards 
so  celebrated  as  powerful  nations,  at  this  period  were  no  more  impor- 
tant than  the  other  insignificant  tribes  and  nations  upon  the  Assyrian 
borders.  Neither  of  these  kindred  Aryan  peoples  had  yet  a  capital 
city,  neither  was  united  under  one  sovereign,  but  each  was  divided  into 
many  tribes,  headed  by  chiefs,  and  dispersed  in  scattered  and  defence- 
less towns  and  villages.  They  were  thus  in  the  same  condition  as  the 
Nai'ri,  the  Qummukh,  the  Patena,  the  Hittites  and  other  frontier  na- 
tionalities whose  comparative  weakness  Assyria  demonstrated  to  the 
world  in  a  long  course  of  wars  in  which  she  had  uniformly  triumphed 
over  her  foes. 

Like  his  father,  Shalmaneser  II.,  Shamas-Vul  II.  resided  principally 
at  Calah,  where  he,  like  his  father  and  grandfather,  set  up  an  obelisk, 
or  rather  a  stele,  to  commemorate  his  exploits.  This  monument,  cov- 
ered on  three  sides  with  an  inscription  in  the  hieratic,  or  cursive  char- 
acter, contains  an  opening  invocation  to  the  god  Nin,  conceived  in  the 
usual  terms,  the  king's  genealogy  and  titles,  an  account  of  Asshur- 
danin-pal's  rebellion  and  its  suppression,  and  Shamas-Vul's  own  an- 
nals for  the  first  four  years  of  his  reign.  These  inform  us  that  he 
exhibited  the  same  active  and  energetic  spirit  as  his  father  and  grand- 
father, conducting  campaigns  against  the  Nai'ri  on  the  north,  Media 


Assyria's 
NewFoes. 


Stele  of 
Shamas- 
Vul  II. 


His  Con- 
quests. 


168 


CHAUXEA,   ASSYRIA,   BABYLONIA. 


Success- 
ful Cam- 
paign in 
Baby- 
lonia. 


Descrip- 
tion of  the 
Stele  of 

Shamas- 
VulII. 


Vul-lush 
III. 


His 

Military 
Expedi- 
tions. 

Conquest 
of  Damas- 
cus, Tyre, 

Sidon, 
Israel, 
Edom, 
Philistia, 
the  Nairi, 
Minni, 
Media, 
Persiaand 
Baby- 
lonia. 


and  Arazias  on  the  east,  and  Babylonia  on  the  south.  The  people  of 
Hupuska,  the  Minni,  and  the  Bartsu,  or  Persians,  paid  him  tribute. 

The  fourth  campaign  of  Shamas-Vul  II.  was  against  Babylonia, 
which  country  he  entered  from  the  north-east.  He  took  a  strongly- 
fortified  position  of  the  Babylonians  after  a  vigorous  siege,  eighteen 
thousand  of  the  garrison  being  slain,  and  three  thousand  made  prison- 
ers, while  the  city  was  plundered  and  burned,  and  the  Assyrian  mon- 
arch went  in  hot  pursuit  of  the  flying  foe.  Shamas-Vul  II.  next  de- 
feated the  Babylonian  king,  Merodach-belatzu-ikbi,  at  the  head  of  an 
allied  host  of  Babylonians,  Aramaeans,  or  Syrians,  and  Zimri,  on  the 
river  Daban ;  the  allies  losing  five  thousand  killed,  two  thousand  made 
prisoners,  one  hundred  chariots,  two  hundred  tents  and  the  Babylonian 
royal  standard  and  pavilion.  The  annals  of  Shamas-Vul  II.  here 
abruptly  terminate ;  but  it  appears  from  other  circumstances  that  from 
this  time,  for  over  half  a  century,  Babylonia,  which  had  for  a  long 
time  been  a  separate  and  independent  kingdom,  was  reduced  to  the 
condition  of  a  tributary. 

The  stele  of  Shamas-Vul  II.  contains  one  allusion  to  a  hunting  ex- 
ploit, stating  that  he  killed  several  wild  bulls  at  the  foot  of  the  Zagros, 
while  leading  his  expedition  against  Babylonia.  His  stele  consists  of 
a  single  figure  in  relief,  representing  the  king  in  his  priestly  dress, 
wearing  the  sacred  symbols  round  his  neck,  standing  with  his  right 
arm  upraised,  and  enclosed  in  the  usual  arched  frame.  This  figure 
is  somewhat  larger  than  life,  and  is  cut  on  a  single  solid  stone,  and 
then  set  on  a  larger  block  serving  for  a  pedestal.  The  figure  closely 
resembles  that  of  Asshur-izir-pal,  already  described. 

Shamas-Vul  II.,  upon  his  death,  in  B.  C.  810,  was  succeeded  on  the 
Assyrian  throne  by  his  son,  VUL-LUSH  III.,  who  reigned  twenty-nine 
years,  from  B.  C.  810  to  B.  C.  781.  The  scanty  memorials  of  this 
king  consist  of  two  slabs  found  at  Nimrud,  of  a  short  dedicatory  in- 
scription on  duplicate  statues  of  the  god  Nebo,  brought  from  the  same 
place,  of  some  brick  inscriptions  from  the  Nebbi-Yunus  mound  of  Nin- 
eveh, and  of  short  notices  of  the  regions  in  which  he  conducted  cam- 
paigns, contained  in  one  copy  of  the  Assyrian  Canon. 

Vul-lush  III.  was  as  warlike  as  any  of  his  predecessors,  and  extended 
the  Assyrian  dominion  in  every  direction.  He  led  seven  expeditions 
across  the  Zagros  mountains  into  Media,  two  into  the  Van  region,  and 
three  into  Syria.  He  says  that  in  one  of  his  Syrian  expeditions  he 
reduced  Damascus,  whose  kings  had  defied  the  repeated  attacks  of 
Shalmaneser  II.  He  counts  as  his  tributaries  in  this  region,  besides 
Damascus,  the  Phoenician  cities  of  Tyre  and  Sidon,  and  the  countries 
of  Khumri,  or  Samaria ;  Palestine,  or  Philistia ;  and  Hudum  (Edom,  or 
Idumaea).  On  the  north  he  received  tokens  of  submission  from  the 


THE    OLD    ASSYRIAN    EMPIRE. 

Nairi,  the  Minni,  the  Mada,  or  Medes,  and  the  Bartsu,  or  Persians. 
On  the  south  he  ruled  Babylonia  like  a  sovereign,  received  homage  from 
the  Chaldseans,  and  in  the  great  cities  of  Babylonia,  Borsippa  and 
Cutha,  or  Tiggaba,  he  was  permitted  to  sacrifice  to  the  gods  Bel,  Nebo 
and  Nergal.  In  one  place  he  styles  himself  "  the  king  to  whose  son 
Asshur,  the  chief  of  the  gods,  has  granted  the  kingdom  of  Babylon ; " 
from  which  it  has  been  inferred  that  he  appointed  his  own  son  viceroy 
of  Babylon. 

Thus,  by  the  time  of  Vul-lush  III.,  early  in  the  eighth  century  be-  Assyria's 
fore  Christ,  Assyria  was  master  of  Babylonia  in  the  south,  and  of  Phil-  Domin- 
istia  and  Edom  in  the  west.  Her  dominion  thus  skirted  the  Persian  ions- 
Gulf  on  the  one  hand  and  came  into  contact  with  Egypt  on  the  other. 
At  the  same  time  she  received  the  submission  of  some  of  the  Median 
tribes  on  the  east;  and  held  Southern  Armenia,  from  Lake  Van  to  the 
sources  of  the  Tigris,  on  the  north.  She  was  in  possession  of  all 
Northern  Syria,  including  Commagene  and  Amanus,  and  had  tribu- 
taries beyond  that  mountain  range.  She  ruled  supreme  over  the  entire 
Syrian  coast  from  Issus  to  Gaza ;  and  her  sway  was  acknowledged  by 
all  the  tribes  and  kingdoms  between  the  Mediterranean  coast  and  the 
Syrian  desert,  such  as  the  Phoenicians,  the  Hamathites,  the  Patena,  the 
Hittites,  the  Syrians  of  Damascus,  the  Israelites,  or  Samarians,  and 
the  Edomites,  or  Idumaeans.  In  the  east  she  had  subjugated  nearly 
the  whole  region  of  the  Zagros,  and  had  tributaries  in  the  highlands 
on  the  east  side  of  that  range.  On  the  south  she  had  either  absorbed 
Babylonia,  or  made  her  influence  supreme  in  that  kingdom.  Although 
she  had  not  attained  the  highest  pinnacle  of  her  greatness  until  a  cen- 
tury later,  she  was  already,  as  described  by  the  Hebrew  prophet  Eze- 
kiel,  "  a  cedar  of  Lebanon,"  whose  "  height  was  exalted  above  all  the 
trees  of  the  field ;  and  his  boughs  were  multiplied,  and  his  branches  be- 
came long,"  and  "  under  his  shadow  dwelt  great  nations." 

Vul-lush  III.  calls  himself  the  "  restorer  of  noble  buildings  which   Works  of 
had  gone  to  decay."     On  the  Nimrud  mound,  between  the  north-west-    *u^sh 
ern  and  south-western  palaces,  are  chambers  built  by  him,  and  on  the 
Nebbi-Yunus  mound  of  Nineveh  are  the  ruins  of  a  palace  erected  by 
him.     The  walls  of  the  Nimrud  chambers  were  plastered,  and  then 
painted  in  fresco  with  patterns  of  winged  bulls,  zigzags,  squares,  cir- 
cles, etc.     The  superstitious  regard  of  the  natives  for  the  supposed 
tomb  of  the  prophet  Jonah  has  thus  far  thwarted  all  efforts  of  Euro- 
peans to  explore  the  Nebbi-Yunus  palace. 

Sir  Henry  Rawlinson  discovered  two  rude  statues  of  the  god  Nebo  Statues  of 
in  a  temple  at  Nimrud  dedicated  to  that  deity  by  Vul-lush  III.,  along 
with  four  colossal  statues  of  the  same  god,  and  two  others  resembling 
those  now  in  the  British  Museum.     These  statues  display  no  artistic 


170 


CHALD^A,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Inscrip- 
tions 
Thereon. 


Sammu- 
ramit,  or 

Semira- 
znis,  Wife 

of  Vul- 
lush  III. 


Obscure 
Period. 


Shalma- 

neser  III., 

Asshur- 

Dayan 
III.,  and 
Asshur- 

lush. 


The 
Scrip- 
tural Pul. 


merit,  as  Assyrian  sculptors  were  trammeled  by  precedent  and  con- 
ventional rules  in  religious  subjects,  and  in  representations  of  kings 
and  nobles,  being  thus  limited  by  law  or  custom  to  certain  ancient  forms 
and  modes  of  expression,  which  we  see  repeated  with  uniform  monotony 
through  all  the  periods  of  Assyrian  history. 

These  statues  are  interesting  as  containing  inscriptions  showing 
that  they  were  offered  to  Nebo  by  an  officer  who  was  governor  of  Calah, 
Khamida  (Amadiyeh)  and  three  other  places  for  the  life  of  Vul-lush 
III.  and  of  his  wife,  Sammuramit,  "  that  the  god  might  lengthen  the 
monarch's  life,  prolong  his  days,  increase  his  years,  and  give  peace  to 
his  house  and  people,  and  victory  to  his  armies." 

This  Sammuramit,  wife  of  Vul-lush  III.,  has  been  identified  as  the 
legendary  Semiramis,  whom  the  Greek  historians  represented  as  a 
woman  of  masculine  qualities,  the  mightiest  queen  that  ever  reigned, 
and  whose  conquests  rivaled  or  surpassed  those  of  Cyrus  the  Great  or 
Alexander  the  Great.  This  Sammuramit,  or  Semiramis,  the  Babylo- 
nian wife  of  Vul-lush  III.,  gave  that  king  his  title  to  the  Babylonian 
dominions,  and  reigned  jointly  with  him  both  in  Babylonia  and  As- 
syria. The  exaggerated  stories  of  this  princess,  as  transmitted  to 
modern  times  through  the  accounts  of  Herodotus  and  Ctesias,  have 
been  exploded  in  the  present  century;  the  renowned  German  histori- 
ans, Heeren  and  Niebuhr,  first  pronouncing  the  story  of  her  conquer- 
ing career  a  myth,  and  patient  explorers  in  the  field  of  Assyrian 
antiquity  substituting  for  the  shadowy  marvel  of  Ctesias  a  very  pro- 
saic Assyrian  queen,  a  very  commonplace  Babylonian  princess,  who 
never  really  executed  great  works  or  performed  great  exploits. 

With  the  death  of  Vul-lush  III.,  in  B.  C.  781,  ended  the  brilliant 
Calah  line  of  Assyrian  sovereigns ;  and  for  a  period  of  almost  forty 
years  Assyrian  history  is  again  involved  in  partial  obscurity.  The 
Assyrian  Canon  informs  us  that  three  monarchs  reigned  during  this 
interval — SHALMANESER  III.  from  B.  C.  781  to  B.  C.  771,  ASSHUR- 
DAYAN  III.  from  B.  C.  771  to  B.  C.  753,  and  ASSHUR-LTTSH  from 
B.  C.  753  to  B.  C.  745.  During  this  short  period  Assyrian  conquests 
ceased,  Assyrian  glory  for  the  time  had  passed  away,  and  a  general 
decline  seems  to  have  set  in.  None  of  these  three  kings  left  any  im- 
portant buildings,  memorials  or  monumental  records.  The  onward 
march  of  this  great  empire,  which  remained  unchecked  for  over  a  cen- 
tury, was  thus  brought  to  a  sudden  halt. 

At  this  point  there  is  an  apparent  contradiction  between  the  native 
Assyrian  records  and  the  incidental  allusions  to  their  history  as  found 
in  the  Second  Book  of  Kings.  The  Scriptural  Pul — the  "  King  of 
Assyria"  who  came  up  against  the  land  of  Israel  and  received  from 
Menahem  a  thousand  talents  of  silver,  "  that  his  hand  might  be  with 


THE   OLD    ASSYRIAN    EMPIRE. 


171 


him  to  confirm  the  kingdom  in  his  hand  " — is  not  mentioned  in  the  As- 
syrian inscriptions,  and  is  not  named  in  the  Assyrian  Canon.  The 
Scripture  records  would  make  Pul  the  immediate  predecessor  of  Tig- 
lath-Pileser  II. ;  as  his  expedition  against  Menahem  is  followed,  at 
most,  thirty-two  years  later,  by  an  expedition  by  Tiglath-Pileser  II. 
against  Pekah,  King  of  Israel.  Berosus  represented  P.ul  as  a  Chal- 
dsean  king,  whom  Polyhistor  calls  Pulus,  and  who  is  believed  to  be  the 
Porus  mentioned  in  the  Canon  of  Ptolemy. 

During  this  interval  of  Assyrian  darkness  and  decay,  under  the  first 
three  successors  of  Vul-lush  III.,  the  frontier  kingdoms  began  to  assert 
their  power  and  independence.  Babylon,  which  had  remained  under 
Assyrian  sway  since  its  conquest  by  Shamas-Vul  II.,  the  father  and 
immediate  predecessor  of  Vul-lush  III.,  reestablished  its  independence 
under  Nabonassar  in  B.  C.  747,  from  which  point — thereafter  known 
as  the  Era  of  Nabonassar — the  Babylonians  thereafter  reckoned  time. 
Enterprising  kings  of  Israel,  such  as  Jeroboam  II.  and  Menahem,  also 
cast  off  the  Assyrian  yoke  and  extended  their  own  dominions,  as  did 
the  tribes  of  Armenia  and  the  Zagros  region.  The  reign  of  Asshur- 
dayan  III.  was  disturbed  by  three  formidable  rebellions  in  the  heart  of 
Assyria  itself — one  at  the  city  of  Libzu,  another  at  Arpakha,  the  chief 
town  of  Arrapachitis,  and  a  third  at  Gozan,  the  chief  city  of  Gauza- 
nitis,  or  Mygdonia.  The  inscriptions  do  not  inform  us  of  the  results 
of  these  revolts,  but  the  degeneracy  of  the  military  spirit,  and  the 
voluptuous  and  luxurious  disposition  of  the  kings,  give  ground  for 
the  belief  that  the  attempts  made  to  subdue  the  rebels  were  failures. 
Asshur-dayan  III.  and  Asshur-lush  spent  their  reigns  mostly  in  inac- 
tion and  inglorious  ease  at  their  rich  and  luxurious  capitals.  At  the 
close  of  this  period  of  darkness  and  decline,  Calah,  the  second  city  of 
the  kingdom,  revolted,  and  thus  inaugurated  the  dynastic  and  political 
revolution  which  ushered  in  the  brilliant  period  of  the  New  or  Lower 
Assyrian  Empire,  founded  by  the  great  Tiglath-Pileser  II. 

It  has  been  supposed  that  it  was  during  this  period  of  general  na- 
tional weakness  and  decay,  when  an  unwarlike  sovereign  was  reveling 
in  inglorious  ease  amid  the  luxuries  and  refinements  of  Nineveh,  and 
when  the  Ninevites  had  abandoned  themselves  to  vicious  indulgences, 
that  they  were  suddenly  startled  by  a  strange  voice  in  their  streets 
uttering  the  solemn  warning:  "Yet  forty  days,  and  Nineveh  shall  be 
overthrown !  "  A  strange  wild  man  clad  in  a  rude  garment  of  skin — a 
traveler  unknown  to  the  inhabitants,  pale,  emaciated,  weary — pro- 
claimed in  every  quarter  of  the  great  and  luxurious  city :  "  Yet  forty 
days,  and  Nineveh  shall  be  overthrown ! "  Coming  as  this  cry  did, 
when  the  glory  of  Assyria  had  departed,  and  when  it  had  to  defend  its 
own  existence  against  the  foes  i!:  had  subdued  in  the  days  of  its  former 


Tempo- 
rary 
Baby- 
lonian 
Independ- 
ence. 

Era  of 
Nabonas- 
sar 

Israel's 
Tempo- 
rary Inde- 
pendence. 

Rebell- 
ions in 
Assyria. 


Dynastic 
Revolu- 
tion at 
Calah. 


The 
Prophet 
Jonah  at 
Nineveh. 


CHALDJtiA,   ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 

prosperity,  the  people  were  seized  with  consternation  and  alarm.  This 
dismay  invaded  the  royal  palace,  and  his  frightened  servants  "  came 
and  told  the  King  of  Nineveh,"  who  then  sat  on  his  throne  in  the  great 
audience-chamber,  surrounded  by  all  the  wealth,  luxury,  pomp  and  mag- 
nificence of  his  court.  The  monarch  at  once  "  arose  from  his  throne, 
and  laid  aside  his  robe  from  him,  and  covered  himself  with  sackcloth 
and  ashes."  After  having  an  edict  framed,  he  "  caused  it  to  be  pro- 
claimed and  published  through  Nineveh,  by  the  decree  of  the  king  and 
his  nobles,  saying,  Let  neither  man  nor  beast,  herd  nor  flock,  taste  any- 
thing; let  them  not  feed,  nor  drink  water;  but  let  man  and  beast 
be  covered  with  sackcloth,  and  cry  mightily  unto  God;  yea,  let  them 
turn  every  one  from  his  evil  way,  and  from  the  violence  that  is  in  their 
hands."  The  fast  thus  commanded  by  royal  authority  was  at  once 
proclaimed,  and  the  Ninevites,  fearing  the  Divine  wrath,  clothed  them- 
selves in  sackcloth  "from  the  greatest  of  them  even  to  the  least  of 
them."  From  joy  and  merriment,  from  revelry  and  feasting,  the  great 
city  turned  to  lamentation  and  mourning.  The  people  abandoned 
their  vices  and  humbled  themselves;  they  "turned  from  their  evil  way," 
and  by  a  sincere  repentance  of  their  past  sins  they  sought  to  avert  their 
threatened  doom.  The  haggard  and  travel-stained  stranger  who  had 
alarmed  the  inhabitants  of  this  great  capital  and  metropolis  to  repent- 
ance, by  announcing  to  them  their  threatened  destruction,  was  the 
Jewish  prophet  Jonah.  He  sat  in  vain  outside  the  eastern  limits  of 
the  city,  waiting  to  behold  the  destruction  which  he  expected  that  the 
Lord  Jehovah  would  visit  upon  the  "  great  city,"  which  then  is  said  to 
have  had  "six  score  thousand  persons  that  could  not  discern  between 
their  right  hand  and  their  left."  The  expected  doom  was  not  inflicted 
in  forty  days,  and  Nineveh  was  not  overthrown  until  more  than  a  cen- 
tury later. 


SECTION  VI.— NEW,  OR  LOWER  ASSYRIAN  EMPIRE. 

Tiglath-  WITH  TIGLATH-PILJGSEB.  II.,  who  became  King  of  Assyria  in  B.  C. 
745,  began  the  New  or  Lower  Assyrian  Empire  (B.  C.  745-625) — the 
third  and  last,  and  the  most  brilliant  period  of  Assyrian  history.  Tig- 
lath-Pileser  II.  was  thus  the  restorer  of  Assyrian  greatness.  The  cir- 
cumstances of  his  accession  are  unknown  to  us,  but  he  was  the  founder 
of  a  new  dynasty,  and  Rawlinson  thinks  he  was  a  usurper,  and  places 
no  reliance  upon  the  story  of  Bion  and  Polyhistor  that  this  monarch 
rose  from  the  humble  station  of  a  vine-dresser  who  had  been  employed 
in  keeping  in  order  the  king's  gardens.  In  his  inscriptions  Tiglath- 
Pileser  II.  is  repeatedly  represented  as  speaking  of  "  the  kings  his 


NEW,   OR   LOWER   ASSYRIAN   EMPIRE.  173 

fathers,"  and  as  calling  the  royal  palaces  at  Calah  "  the  palaces  of 
his  fathers,"  but  he  never  gives  the  name  of  his  actual  father  in  any 
record  that  has  come  to  the  eye  of  modern  archaeologists  and  antiqua- 
rians. This  circumstance  gives  ground  for  the  conclusion  that  he 
owed  his  possession  of  the  crown,  not  to  the  legitimate  title  of  heredi- 
tary succession,  but  to  the  fortunes  of  a  successful  revolution  which 
displaced  the  preceding  dynasty. 

Tiglath-Pileser  II.  undertook  to  effect  the  restoration  of  the  As-  His  Wars 
Syrian  Empire  by  a  series  of  wars  upon  his  different  frontiers,  seek- 
ing by  his  unwearied  activity  and  tireless  energy  to  recover  the  losses 
occasioned  by  the  imbecility  of  his  predecessors.     The  chronological 
order  of  these  wars,  which  was  previously  unknown,  is  now  definitely 
determined  by  the  Assyrian  Canon.     Among  his  many  military  expe- 
ditions only  those  undertaken  into  Babylonia  and  Syria  are  of  any  con- 
sequence.    The  expeditions  of  Tiglath-Pileser   II.   against   Babylon 
occurred  in  the  first  and  fifteenth  years  of  his  reign,  B.  C.  745  and  731. 
As  soon  as  he  was  firmly  seated  upon  his  throne  he  led  an  army  against    His  First 
Babylon,  over  which,  according  to  the  Canon  of  Ptolemy,  Nabonassar    *?  ^fs^on 
then  reigned,  and  against  the  other  petty  Chaldaean  princes,  among      lonia. 
whom  was  Merodach-Baladan,  who  reigned  in  his  father's  city  of  Bit- 
Yakin.     After  attacking  and  defeating  several  of  these  princes,  and 
taking  the  towns  of  Kurri-galzu   (now  Akkerkuf)   and  Sippara,  or 
Sepharvaim,  and  other  places  in  Chaldsea,  Tiglath-Pileser  II.  compelled 
Merodach-Baladan  to  acknowledge  him  as  suzerain  and  agree  to  pay 
an  annual  tribute,  whereupon  the  Assyrian  monarch  assumed  the  title 
of  "  King  of  Babylon  "  and  offered  sacrifice  to  the  Babylonian  gods  in 
all  the  chief  cities  (B.  C.  729). 

The  first   Syrian  war  of  Tiglath-Pileser  II.   began  in  the  third    His  War 
year  of  his  reign  (B.  C.  743),  and  lasted  five  years.     During  its  prog-      Syria, 
ress  he  conquered  Damascus,  which  had  recovered  its   independence  Damascus 
and  was  governed  by  Rezin.     He  also  subdued  Syria,  where  Men-      Israel. 
ahem,  Pul's  old  foe,  was  still  reigning.     He  likewise  reduced  Tyre, 
whose  reigning  sovereign  bore  the   common  name   of  Hiram.     The 
Assyrian  monarch  also  subjected  Hamath,  Gebal  and  the  Arabs  bor- 
dering upon  Egypt,  who  were  ruled  by  a  queen  named  Khabiba.     He 
also  defeated  a  large  army  under  Azariah,  or  Uzziah,  King  of  Judah, 
but  failed  to  reduce  him  to  submission.     Tiglath-Pileser  II.  did  not 
conquer   Judaea,  Idumasa,   Philistia,   Phoenicia,   or   the   tribes   of  the 
Hauran,  in  his  first  war,  and  in  B.  C.  734  he  renewed  the  struggle  by 
an  attack  on  Samaria,  whose  king  at  that  time  was  Pekah,  and  taking 
"  Ijon,  and  Abel-beth-maachah,  and  Janoah,  and  Kedesh,  and  Hazor, 
and  Gilead,  and  Galilee,  and  all  the  land  of  Naphtali,  and  carrying 
them  captive  to  Assyria,"  thus  "  lightly  afflicting  the  land  of  Zebulun 


174 


CHALD^A,   ASSYRIA,   BABYLONIA. 


His 

Conquest 
of  Syria, 
Damas- 
cus and 
Israel. 


His 

Conquest 

of  Arabs, 

Philis- 

tines, 


nicians, 

Syrians, 

Judah 

and 
Israel. 


Tyre  and! 
Israel 
Again 

Subdued. 


Works  at 

Calah. 


and  the  land  of  Naphtali,"  or  the  more  northern  part  of  the  Holy 
Land,  about  Lake  Merom,  and  thence  to  the  Sea  of  Gennesareth. 

Then  followed  the  most  important  of  the  Syrian  wars  of  Tiglath- 
Pileser  II.  The  common  danger  united  Pekah,  King  of  Samaria,  and 
Rezin,  King  of  Damascus,  in  a  close  alliance;  and  when  Ahaz,  King 
of  Judah,  refused  to  unite  with  them  they  invaded  his  kingdom  and 
attempted  to  dethrone  him  and  put  "  the  son  of  Tabeal  "  in  his  place. 
Ahaz  applied  to  the  King  of  Assyria  for  help,  offering  to  be  his  "  ser- 
vant "• — his  vassal  and  tributary — if  he  came  to  his  relief.  Tiglath- 
Pileser  II.  gladly  came  to  the  rescue  of  Ahaz,  and  with  a  large  army 
he  entered  Syria,  defeated  Rezin  and  besieged  him  in  Damascus 
for  two  years,  when  he  was  taken  captive  and  slain.  The  Assyrian 
king  then  invaded  Samaria;  and  the  tribes  of  Reuben  and  Gad,  and 
the  half -tribe  of  Manasseh,  who  occupied  the  provinces  east  of  the 
Jordan,  were  carried  captive  to  Assyria  and  colonized  in  Upper  Meso- 
potamia, on  the  affluents  of  the  Bilikh  and  the  Khabour,  from  about 
Harran  to  Nisibis.  Some  cities  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Jordan,  in 
the  territory  of  Issachar,  but  belonging  to  Manasseh — among  which 
were  Megiddo,  in  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  and  Dur,  or  Dor,  upon  the 
coast — were  also  seized  and  occupied  by  the  conquering  Assyrians; 
and  Assyrian  governors  were  placed  over  Dur  and  the  other  leading 
cities  of  Southern  Syria. 

Tiglath-Pileser  II.  then  marched  southward  and  subdued  the  Philis- 
tines and  the  Arab  tribes  of  the  Sinaitic  peninsula  as  far  as  the  bor- 
ders of  Egypt.  He  deposed  the  native  queen  of  these  Arabs,  and  put 
an  Assyrian  governor  in  her  place.  Returning  to  Damascus,  he  there 
received  the  submission  of  the  neighboring  states  and  tribes ;  and  before 
he  left  Syria  he  received  submission  and  tribute  from  Ahaz,  King  of 
Judah;  Mit'enna,  King  of  Tyre;  Pekah,  King  of  Samaria;  Khanun, 
King  of  Gaza ;  Mitinti,  King  of  Ascalon ;  and  from  the  Moabites,  the 
Ammonites,  the  people  of  Arvad,  or  Aradus,  and  the  Idumaeans.  Thus 
Tiglath-Pileser  II.  fully  reestablished  the  Assyrian  power  in  Syria, 
and  restored  to  his  empire  the  territory  from  the  Mediterranean  on  the 
west  to  the  Syrian  desert  on  the  east,  and  from  Mount  Amanus  on  the 
north  to  the  Red  Sea  and  the  frontiers  of  Egypt  on  the  south. 

Tiglath-Pileser  afterward  sent  another  expedition  into  Syria,  to 
quell  the  disorders  occasioned  by  the  revolt  of  Mit'enna,  King  of 
Tyre,  and  the  assassination  of  Pekah,  King  of  Israel,  by  Hoshea. 
The  Tyrian  king  quickly  submitted,  and  Hoshea  agreed  to  govern  his 
kingdom  only  as  an  Assyrian  province;  whereupon  the  Assyrian  army 
retired  beyond  the  Euphrates. 

Calah  was  the  chosen  residence  of  Tiglath-Pileser  II.  Here  he 
repaired  and  adorned  the  palace  of  Shalmaneser  II,  whose  ruins  are 


NEW,   OR   LOWER    ASSYRIAN    EMPIRE.  ^5 

now  in  the  center  of  the  Nimrud  mound.  Here  he  also  erected  a  new 
edifice,  the  most  splendid  of  his  structures.  The  sculptures  which 
embellished  Shalmaneser's  palace  were  afterwards  used  by  Esar-had- 
don  to  adorn  his  own  palace.  The  new  palace  which  Tiglath-Pileser 
II.  built  was  afterward  ruined  by  some  invader,  and  then  built  upon 
by  the  last  Assyrian  king.  The  excavations  of  this  place  by  Messrs. 
Layard  and  Loftus  have  revealed  the  ground-plan  of  the  edifice,  show- 
ing its  arrangements  of  courts  and  halls  and  chambers,  and  the  sculp- 
tures which  ornamented  the  walls,  representing  animal  forms,  such  as 
camels,  oxen,  sheep,  goats,  etc. 

The  Assj'rian  Canon  gives  Tiglath-Pileser  II.  a  reign  of  eighteen    Shalma- 
years,  from  B.  C.  745  to  B.  C.  727.     He  was  succeeded  by  SHALMAN- 
ESER IV.      It  is  not  known  whether  this  monarch  was  related  to  his 
predecessor  or  not,  but  he  is  supposed  to  have  been  his  son.     Shal- 
maneser  IV.  reigned  only  between  five  and  six  years  (B.  C.  727—722). 
Soon  after  he  became  king  he  terrified  Hoshea,  King  of  Judah,  into  a 
renewal  of  his  sub  mission,  so  that  "  Hoshea  became  his  servant  and  gave 
him  presents,"  or  "  rendered  him  tribute."     The  arrears   of  tribute 
were  rendered  and  the  homage  of  the  vassal  king  to  his  lord  were  paid. 
But  soon  afterward  Hoshea,  disregarding  his  engagements,  was  seek-  His  Wars 
ing  the  alliance  of  the  King  of  Egypt.     Says  the  Second  Book  of  judahand 
Kings :  "And  the  King  of  Assyria  found  conspiracy  in  Hoshea ;  for  he      Israel, 
had  sent  messengers  to  So,  King  of  Egypt,  and  brought  no  present  to 
the  King  of  Assyria,  as  he  had  done  year  by  year."     The  native  Pha- 
raohs of  Egypt  had  been  friendly  to  Assyria,  but  the  Ethiopian  dy- 
nasty which  had  recently  conquered  Egypt  was  the  natural  foe  of  the 
Assyrians,  and  gladly  accepted  the  proposals  of  Hoshea  for  an  alli- 
ance against  Shalmaneser  IV.     Hoshea  then  revolted  against  the  As- 
syrian monarch,  withheld  his  tribute  and  declared  his  independence. 
Shalmaneser  at  once  invaded  Judah  a  second  time,  and  seized,  bound 
and  imprisoned  Hoshea.     A  year  or  two  later  Shalmaneser  led  a  third 
expedition  into  Syria  and  "  came  up  throughout  all  the  land,"  and  laid 
siege  to  Samaria,  B.  C.  724.     But  the  siege  lasted  two  years,  on  ac-     Siege  of 
count  of  the  heroic  resistance  of  the  inhabitants,  aided  by  the  Egyp-    Samaria- 
tians ;  and  the  city  was  only  taken  after  the  reign  of  Shalmaneser  IV. 
had  been  ended  by  a  successful  revolution. 

While  engaged  in  the  siege  of  Samaria,  Shalmaneser  IV.  was  like-      Wars 
wise  prosecuting  hostilities  against  the  Phoenician   cities,  which  had     pj^j. 
also  revolted  against  Assyria  after  the  death  of  Tiglath-Pileser  II.        cia. 
Shalmaneser  quickly  overran  Phoenicia  in  the  first  year  of  his  reign, 
and  forced  all  the  revolted  cities  to  submit  to  the  Assyrian  yoke.     In- 
sular Tyre  soon  again  revolted ;    whereupon   Shalmaneser  reentered 
Phoenicia,  and  collecting  a  fleet  from  the  other  Phoenician  cities,  Sidon, 


176 


CHALD^A,   ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Siege  of 
Tyre. 


Sargon's 
Usurpa- 
tion. 


His  Wars. 


Invasion 
of 

Susiana 
and  Baby- 
lonia. 


Capture 

of 
Samaria. 


Palae-Tyrus  and  Akko,  he  began  the  siege  of  Tyre.  His  sixty  ves- 
sels were  manned  by  eight  hundred  Phoenician  rowers,  cooperating  with 
a  smaller  number  of  unskilled  Assyrians.  Shalmaneser's  large  fleet, 
however,  was  easily  routed  and  dispersed,  with  the  loss  of  five  hundred 
prisoners,  by.  a  Tyrian  fleet  of  only  twelve  vessels  manned  by  skillful 
seamen.  Shalmaneser  thereupon  abandoned  active  operations  against 
the  devoted  city,  but  left  a  body  of  troops  on  the  main-land  to  cut  off 
the  supplies  of  water  which  the  Tyrians  were  in  the  habit  of  drawing 
from  the  river  Litany,  and  from  the  aqueducts  which  conducted  the 
water  from  springs  in  the  mountains.  The  Tyrians  heroically  held 
out  against  this  pressure  for  five  years,  using  rain-water,  which  they 
collected  in  reservoirs,  to  quench  their  thirst.  It  is  not  known  whether 
they  submitted,  or  whether  the  siege  was  abandoned,  as  the  quotation 
from  Menander,  our  only  authority  on  this  point,  here  breaks  off  ab- 
ruptly. 

Before  either  of  the  two  great  military  enterprises  of  his  reign  were 
concluded,  Shalmaneser  IV.  was  hurled  from  his  throne  by  a  successful 
revolution,  which  put  the  usurper  SARGON  in  his  place.  The  monu- 
ments furnish  us  no  knowledge  of  the  circumstances  concerning  this 
usurpation,  beyond  the  mere  absence  of  Shalmaneser  in  Syria ;  but  it 
is  believed  that  discontent,  caused  by  the  distress  in  consequence  of  the 
king's  long  absence  from  the  capital  of  his  empire,  and  by  his  failure 
to  speedily  reduce  Samaria  and  Tyre,  encouraged  Sargon  in  his  usur- 
pation. The  usurper's  station  must  previously  have  been  obscure,  or, 
at  least,  mediocre,  as  no  inscription  can  be  found  in  which  he  glories  in 
his  ancestry,  or  even  names  his  father,  as  was  the  custom  with  the  legit- 
imate heirs  and  successors  of  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  monarchs,  but 
he  only  alludes  to  the  Assyrian  kings,  in  a  general  way,  as  his  ances- 
tors. Sargon,  or  Sargina,  means  "  the  firm "  or  "  well-established 
king." 

Sargon  determined  to  confirm  his  doubtful  title  to  the  throne  by  the 
prestige  of  military  success,  and  at  once  began  a  series  of  warlike  expe- 
ditions. He  conducted  successive  wars  in  Susiana,  in  Syria  on  the 
borders  of  Egypt,  in  the  tract  beyond'Amanus,  in  Melitene  and  South- 
ern Armenia,  in  Media  and  in  Chaldaea.  His  expeditions  occupied  the 
whole  of  the  first  fifteen  years  of  his  reign.  Immediately  upon  his 
accession  he  invaded  Susiana  and  defeated  its  king,  Humbanigas,  and 
Merodach-Baladan,  the  old  enemy  of  Tiglath-Pileser  II.,  who  had  re- 
volted and  made  himself  King  of  Babylonia.  Though  an  important 
victory  was  thus  gained,  and  many  captives  taken  and  transported  to 
the  country  of  the  Hittites,  the  Susianian  and  Babylonian  kings  were 
not  fully  reduced  to  subjection.  In  the  same  year,  B.  C.  722,  Samaria 
surrendered  to  Sargon's  generals,  after  its  two  years'  siege  begun  by 


NEW,    OR    LOWER    ASSYRIAN    EMPIRE. 


177 


Shalmaneser  IV.  Sargon  punished  the  devoted  city  by  deposing  its 
native  king  and  placing  an  Assyrian  governor  over  it  instead,  and  by 
carrying  into  slavery  27,280  of  its  inhabitants.  On  those  who  re- 
mained he  re-imposed  the  rate  of  tribute  to  which  the  city  had  been 
subjected  before  its  revolt.  The  next  year,  B.  C.  721,  Sargon  was 
obliged  to  lead  an  expedition  into  Syria  to  quell  a  formidable  revolt. 
The  usurper,  Yahu-bid,  or  Ilu-bid,  King  of  Hamath,  had  headed  a 
rebellion,  in  which  the  cities  of  Arpad,  Zimira,  Damascus  and  Samaria 
had  participated;  but  the  allied  rebels  were  defeated  by  Sargon  at 
Karkar,  or  Gargar,  Yahu-bid  and  the  other  revolted  leaders  being  taken 
prisoners  and  put  to  death. 

Having  crushed  this  revolt  in  Syria,  Sargon  marched  southward 
against  the  Egyptians,  who  had  extended  their  dominion  over  a  part 
of  Philistia.  At  Rapikh,  on  the  Mediterranean  coast,  half-way  be- 
tween Gaza  and  Wady-el-Arish,  or  "  River  of  Egypt  " — the  Raphia 
of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  the  modern  Refah — the  united  forces 
of  the  Philistines  under  Khanun,  King  of  Gaza,  and  those  of  Sabaco, 
or  Shabak,  the  Ethiopian  King  of  Egypt,  were  defeated  by  the  As- 
syrian monarch ;  Khanun  being  made  prisoner,  and  Shabak  seeking 
safety  in  flight,  B.  C.  ^20.  Khanun  was  deprived  of  his  crown  and 
carried  a  captive  to  Assj'ria  by  his  conqueror.  The  battle  of  Raphia 
is  important  as  being  the  beginning  of  Egypt's  subjection  to  the  suc- 
cessive dominion  of  Asiatic  and  European  nations — Assyrians,  Babylo- 
nians, Medo-Persians,  Greeks,  Romans,  Saracens  and  Turks. 

After  conducting  unimportant  wars  toward  the  north  and  north- 
east, Sargon  led  another  expedition  toward  the  south-west  in  B.  C. 
715,  five  years  after  his  victory  at  Raphia.  He  first  chastised  the 
Arab  tribes  who  had  made  plundering  raids  into  Syria,  during  which 
"  he  subdued  the  uncultivated  plains  of  the  remote  Arabia,  which  had 
never  before  given  tribute  to  Assyria,"  subjected  the  Thamudites  and 
other  Arab  tribes,  and  settled  a  certain  number  of  them  in  Samaria. 
The  surrounding  princes  sought  the  conqueror's  favor  by  sending  him 
embassies  and  offering  to  become  Assyrian  tributaries.  The  King 
of  Egypt,  as  well  as  It-hamar,  King  of  the  Sabaeans,  and  Tsamsi,  the 
Arab  queen,  thus  became  vassals  to  Sargon  and  sent  him  presents. 

Four  years  afterward,  B.  C.  711,  Sargon  conducted  a  third  expe- 
dition into  this  region  to  punish  Azuri,  King  of  Ashdod,  who  had  re- 
volted against  the  Assyrian  monarch,  withheld  his  tribute  and  incited 
rebellion  among  the  neighboring  princes.  Sargon  deposed  Azuri  and 
put  his  brother  Akhimit  on  the  throne  of  Ashdod  in  his  stead;  but  the 
people  of  this  Philistine  city  refused  to  recognize  Sargon's  creature 
as  their  king,  and  chose  a  certain  Yaman,  or  Yavan,  for  their  ruler, 
who,  to  secure  himself,  entered  into  alliances  with  the  other  Philistine 

VOL.    1.— 12 


Syrian 

Revolt 

Crushed. 


War  with 
Egypt and 
the  Phil- 
istines. 


Battle  of 
Raphia. 


Arabs 
Chas- 
tised. 


Revolt  of 
Ashdod 
Quelled. 


178 


CHALD^EA,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Sabaco 
Humbled. 


Sargon's 
Conquest 
of  Baby- 
lonia. 


Mero- 

dach- 

Baladan 

Deposed. 

Baby- 
lonia, or 
Chaldaea, 

an 

Assyrian 
Province. 


cities,  and  with  Judah  and  Edom.  Thereupon  Sargon  led  an  army 
against  Ashdod,  but  Yaman  sought  safety  in  flight,  and  "  escaped  to 
the  dependencies  of  Egypt,  which  were  under  the  rule  of  Ethiopia." 
The  Assyrian  king  besieged  and  took  Ashdod,  and  Yaman's  wife  and 
children,  with  most  of  the  inhabitants,  were  transported  to  Assyria, 
while  captives  from  other  nations  taken  in  Sargon's  Eastern  wars 
were  colonized  in  Ashdod,  over  which  an  Assyrian  governor  was  also 
placed.  Shabak,  or  Sabaco,  the  Ethiopian  King  of  Egypt,  greatly 
terrified,  sent  an  embassy  imploring  his  favor,  and  surrendered  the 
fugitive  Yaman.  In  consequence  of  this  suppliant  attitude  of  the 
Ethiopian  sovereign  of  Egypt,  "  the  Assyrian  monarch  boasts  that 
the  King  of  Meroe,  who  dwelt  in  the  desert,  and  had  never  sent  ambas- 
sadors to  any  of  the  kings  his  predecessors,  was  led  by  the  fear  of  his 
majesty  to  direct  his  steps  towards  Assyria  and  humbly  bow  down  be- 
fore him." 

Sargon  next  led  an  expedition  against  Babylon,  over  which  Mero- 
dach-Baladan  had  been  quietly  reigning  for  twelve  years.  Having 
established  his  court  at  Babylon,  Merodach-Baladan  formed  alliances 
with  Sutruk-Nakhunta,  King  of  Susiana,  and  the  Aramaean,  or  Syrian 
tribes  above  Babylonia,  to  resist  any  attack  by  the  Assyrian  monarch. 
Nevertheless,  when  Sargon  advanced  against  Babylon,  Merodach-Bal- 
adan fled  to  his  own  city,  Beth-Yakin,  leaving  garrisons  under  his  gen- 
erals in  the  more  important  inland  towns.  At  Beth-Yakin,  which  was 
situated  on  the  Euphrates,  near  its  mouth,  the  Babylonian  king  pre- 
pared for  a  stubborn  resistance,  summoning  the  Aramaeans  to  his  assist- 
ance. He  posted  himself  in  the  plain  in  front  of  the  city,  and  pro- 
tected his  front  and  left  flank  with  a  deep  ditch,  which  he  filled  with 
water  from  the  Euphrates.  Sargon  soon  appeared  at  the  head  of  his 
army,  and  defeated  the  Babylonian  troops  and  drove  them  into  their 
own  dyke,  where  many  of  them  were  drowned,  while  the  allies  were 
also  driven  away  in  headlong  flight.  Merodach-Baladan  shut  himself 
up  in  Beth-Yakin,  which  was  besieged  and  taken  by  Sargon.  The 
Babylonian  king  himself  became  a  prisoner,  but  his  life  was  generously 
spared  by  his  conqueror,  who,  however,  plundered  the  palace  and  burned 
the  city,  and  himself  assumed  the  government  of  Babylonia,  depriving 
Merodach-Baladan  of  his  throne.  In  the  Canon  of  Ptolemy,  Sargon 
is  called  Arceanus. 

Sargon  then  reduced  the  Aramaeans  and  conquered  a  portion  of  Susi- 
ana, to  which  country  he  transported  the  Commukha  from  the  Upper 
Tigris,  placing  an  Assyrian  governor  over  the  mixed  population, 
and  making  him  dependent  upon  the  Assyrian  viceroy  of  Babylon. 
Thus  the  Assyrian  dominion  was  firmly  established  over  Chaldaea,  or 
Babylonia,  whose  power  was  now  completely  broken.  Thenceforth, 


NEW,   OR   LOWER    ASSYRIAN    EMPIRE. 


179 


with  a  few  brief  interruptions,  Chaldasa  remained  an  Assyrian  depend- 
ency until  the  downfall  of  the  Assyrian  Empire  in  B.  C.  625.  Now 
and  then,  for  a  short  interval,  the  unwilling  subject  kingdom  cast  off 
the  conqueror's  yoke  only  to  be  again  reduced  to  a  more  humiliating 
state  of  vassalage,  until  it  eventually  submitted  to  the  hand  of  fate 
and  remained  quiet.  During  the  last  half  century  of  the  Assyrian 
Empire,  from  B.  C.  680  to  B.  C.  625,  Babylonia  was  one  of  the  most 
tranquil  of  its  provinces. 

While  Sargon  held  his  court  at  Babylon  in  B.  C.  708  or  707,  he 
received  embassies  from  two  opposite  quarters,  both  from  islanders 
dwelling  "  in  the  middle  of  the  seas  "  that  bordered  on  his  domin- 
ions. One  embassy  was  sent  by  Upir,  King  of  Asmun,  the  ruler  of  the 
island  of  Khareg,  or  Bahrein,  in  the  Persian  Gulf;  and  the  other  by 
seven  kings  of  Cyprus — princes  of  a  country  which  was  located  "  at  the 
distance  of  seven  days  from  the  coast,  in  the  sea  of  the  setting  sun  " — 
who  offered  the  great  Oriental  sovereign  treasures  of  gold,  silver,  vases, 
logs  of  ebony,  and  the  manufactures  of  their  own  country.  By  be- 
stowing these  presents  the  Cypriots  acknowledged  the  suzerainty  of 
the  King  of  Assyria;  and  they  carried  home  with  them  an  effigy  of 
their  sovereign  lord  carved  in  the  usual  form,  and  bearing  an  inscrip- 
tion recording  his  name  and  titles,  which  they  set  up  at  Idalium,  near 
the  center  of  the  island.  This  effigy  of  Sargon,  found  upon  the  site 
of  Idalium,  is  now  in  the  Berlin  Museum.  In  the  inscriptions,  "  set- 
ting up  the  image  of  his  majesty  "  is  always  a  sign  that  a  monarch 
has  conquered  a  country.  Such  images  are  sometimes  represented  in 
the  bas-reliefs. 

Sargon's  expeditions  to  the  north  and  north-east  also  yielded  suc- 
cessful results ;  and  the  mountain  tribes  of  the  Zagros,  the  Taurus  and 
the  Niphates — the  Medes,  the  Armenians,  the  Tibarenians,  the  Mos- 
chians  and  others — were  thus  subdued.  Ambris  the  Tibarenian,  Mita 
the  Moschian  and  Urza  the  Armenian  had  become  allies  against  their 
common  foe,  the  King  of  Assyria ;  and  their  submission  was  only  forced 
after  a  long  and  fierce  contest.  Ambris  was  deposed,  and  an  Assyrian 
governor  was  placed  over  his  country.  Mita,  after  a  resistance  of 
many  years,  only  agreed  to  pay  tribute.  Uzra  committed  suicide,  in 
despair  at  his  defeat.  But  this  region  was  only  brought  quietly  under 
the  Assyrian  yoke  when  the  King  of  Van  was  conciliated  by  the  cession 
to  him  of  a  large  extent  of  country  which  the  Assyrians  had  wrested 
from  Urza.  Having  rapidly  overrun  Media,  Sargon  seized  a  number 
of  towns  and  "  annexed  them  to  Assyria,"  thus  reducing  a  large  part 
of  that  country  to  the  condition  of  an  Assyrian  province.  He  erected 
a  number  of  fortified  posts  in  one  part  of  the  country,  and  imposed 
upon  the  Medes  a  tribute  consisting  wholly  of  horses. 


Embas- 
sies from 
Bahrein 

and 
Cyprus. 


Sargon's 
Conquest 
of  Media, 
Armenia, 
Van,  and 
Mountain 
Tribes. 


180 


CHALD^A,   ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


War  with 
Susian? 


Whole- 
sale 
Deporta 

tions. 


Sargon's 
Great 

Palace  a/ 
DUT 


After  the  fourteenth  year  of  his  reign,  B.  C.  708,  Sargon  resigned 
the  leadership  of  his  armies  entirely  into  the  hands  of  his  generals. 
A  disputed  succession  in  Illib,  a  small  country  on  the  borders  of  Susi- 
ana,  in  B.  C.  707,  afforded  him  an  occasion  for  interference  in  that 
quarter.  Nibi,  a  pretender  to  the  throne  of  Illib,  had  solicited  the  aid 
of  Sutruk-Nakhunta,  King  of  Elam,  or  Susiana,  who  held  his  court  at 
Susa,  from  whom  he  received  promises  of  support  and  protection. 
The  other  claimant,  named  Ispabara,  thereupon  sought  and  received 
the  assistance  of  Sargon,  who  sent  "  seven  captains  with  seven  armies," 
and  these  defeated  the  troops  of  the  King  of  Susiana  and  established 
Ispabara  on  the  throne  of  Illib.  The  next  year,  however,  Sutruk- 
Nakhunta  invaded  Assyria,  and  took  some  of  its  cities  and  annexed 
them  to  his  kingdom. 

In  all  his  wars  Sargon  made  use  of  the  plan  of  wholesale  deportation 
of  populations.  Israelites  were  thus  transferred  from  Samaria  to 
Gozan,  or  Mygdonia,  and  the  cities  of  the  Medes.  Armenians  were 
colonized  in  Hamath  and  Damascus.  Tibarenians  were  settled  in  As- 
syria, and  Assyrians  were  transported  to  the  country  of  the  Tibare- 
nians. Mountaineers  from  the  Zagros  were  likewise  carried  captive  to 
Assyria.  Chaldaeans,  Arabians  and  others  were  established  in  Samaria. 
Medes  and  other  Eastern  people  were  placed  in  Ashdod.  The  Com- 
mukha  were  removed  from  the  extreme  North  to  Susiana,  and  Chal- 
daeans were  brought  from  the  far  South  to  supply  their  place.  In 
every  quarter  of  his  dominions  Sargon  "  changed  the  abodes  "  of  his 
subjects,  with  a  view  of  weakening  the  more  powerful  nationalities 
by  dispersion,  and  of  smothering  all  patriotic  impulses  in  the  feebler 
races  by  severing  at  one  stroke  all  the  bonds  of  attachment  to  their 
native  land.  Although  this  system  had  been  practiced  by  former  As- 
syrian kings,  none  had  carried  it  out  on  so  extensive  and  so  grand  a 
scale  as  Sargon. 

The  splendid  palace  which  this  monarch  had  erected  at  Dur  Sargina 
(City  of  Sargon),  the  modern  Khorsabad,  was  the  most  striking  of 
his  great  architectural  works.  It  was  not  as  large  as  the  palaces 
built  by  previous  or  subsequent  kings,  but  it  surpassed  all  other  royal 
residences  by  its  magnificence  and  grandeur,  with  the  solitary  excep- 
tion of  the  great  palace  of  Asshur-bani-pal  at  Nineveh.  Its  orna- 
mentation was  resplendent  beyond  description.  It  was  literally  cov- 
ered with  sculptures,  both  inside  and  outside,  generally  arranged  in 
two  rows,  one  above  the  other,  and  illustrating  the  events  in  Sar- 
gon's wars,  his  battles  and  sieges,  his  captives,  his  treatment  of  pris- 
oners, etc.  Above  this  it  was  embellished  with  enameled  bricks,  fash- 
ioned in  beautiful  models.  Leading  to  this  magnificent  edifice  were 
noble  flights  of  steps ;  and  the  structure  stood  by  itself,  so  that  its  ap- 


I        i   •  • 

,1  »5 

I     // 


H 

n 


NEW,   OR   LOWER    ASSYRIAN    EMPIRE. 

pearance  was  not  marred  by  the  proximity  of  other  buildings.  Its 
entrances  and  passages  were  guarded  by  colossal  winged  man-headed 
bulls  and  lions.  It  was  in  many  particulars  the  most  interesting  of 
Assyrian  works.  The  city  where  this  palace  was  located  was  sur- 
rounded with  strong  walls,  enclosing  a  square  two  thousand  yards  each 
way.  Assigning  fifty  square  yards  to  each  person,  this  space  could 
have  accommodated  eighty  thousand  people.  The  city,  as  well  as  the 
palace,  was  wholly  built  by  Sargon,  whose  name  it  bore  until  after  the 
Arab  conquest  in  the  seventh  century  after  Christ.  Sargon's  palace 
is  the  most  complete  of  the  Assyrian  royal  residences  yet  uncovered. 
It  exhibits  the  architecture,  the  decorative  art  and  sculpture  of  the 
Assyrians  in  their  highest  forms.  Like  all  other  Assyrian  palaces,  it 
stands  on  the  summit  of  an  immense  mound  constructed  of  bricks. 
The  mound  was  arranged  in  two  platforms  of  unequal  height  in  the 
form  of  the  letter  T«  The  palace  proper  was  built  on  the  more  ele- 
vated mound,  and  consisted  of  a  series  of  structures  ranged  around 
immense  courts.  The  main  building  occupied  by  the  king  was  located 
at  the  bottom  of  the  principal  court,  and  had  a  perfectly  regular  fa- 
cade, with  a  magnificently-ornamented  gateway  in  the  middle.  Two- 
thirds  of  the  northwest  part  of  the  palace  was  occupied  by  the  grand 
reception  hall  and  its  large  and  magnificent  galleries,  with  walls  cased 
with  bas-reliefs ;  one-third,  to  the  south-east,  by  the  inhabited  apart- 
ments, with  smaller  and  less  decorated  rooms.  Passages  led  into  two 
of  the  sides  of  the  large  court;  one  on  the  north-west  to  a  square  es- 
planade, or  court,  occupying  the  northern  angle  of  the  artificial  mound 
of  the  palace,  in  .front  of  a  building  joining  the  north-west  face  of  the 
seraglio,  with  which  it  had  no  communication  internally.  This  edifice 
was  most  profusely  ornamented;  it  contained  six  immense  halls  deco- 
rated with  sculpture,  and  some  other  smaller  rooms.  It  was  a  "  sec- 
ond palace  grafted  on  to  the  first — a  second  selamik,  rivaling  in  splen- 
dor that  of  the  seraglio."  The  passage  leading  into  the  southeast  side 
of  the  reception  hall  of  the  seraglio  opened  to  the  lower  platform,  and 
to  the  great  court  of  the  offices.  The  lower  platform  of  the  artificial 
hill  raised  for  the  palace  of  Sargon  was  occupied  by  the  khan  and  the 
harem.  This  part  of  the  structure  faced  towards  the  city,  and  com- 
municated directly  with  it.  In  the  midst  was  the  khan  proper,  an 
enormous  square  court,  surrounded  on  every  side  by  buildings,  stables, 
lodgings  for  grooms  and  for  most  of  the  slaves.  It  was  reached  from 
the  city  by  two  immense  flights  of  steps  in  the  center  of  the  south- 
east face  of  the  terrace.  As  we  have  observed,  an  elaborately-deco- 
rated passage  led  from  this  court  of  the  khan  into  the  reception  hall  of 
the  seraglio.  Two  small  doors  likewise  communicated  directly  with 
the  occupied  rooms  of  the  palace.  To  the  right  of  the  khan  was  the 


182  CHAUXEA,   ASSYRIA,   BABYLONIA. 

khazneh,  or  treasury,  with  its  many  courts  and  chambers,  constituting 
some  of  the  offices  or  common  rooms  of  the  palace.  Here  were  the 
stores  of  provisions  for  the  royal  household,  and  places  for  the  cus- 
tody of  the  valuables  which  Sargon  informs  us,  in  his  dedicatory  in- 
scription, that  he  had  acquired  by  his  conquests  and  stored  in  his  pal- 
ace. Adjoining  the  khazneh  was  the  harem,  containing  three  courts, 
the  walls  of  one  of  them  being  covered  with  rich  decorations  in  enam- 
eled bricks.  Besides  the  three  courts,  the  harem  had  many  long  gal- 
leries and  many  rooms  for  habitation.  The  harem  was  shut  in  in 
the  closest  possible  manner;  all  communication  with  the  outside  world 
was  intercepted,  and  the  women  were  virtually  imprisoned.  A  solitary 
vestibule,  guarded  by  eunuchs,  led  to  it  by  two  issues;  one  connecting 
with  the  great  court  of  the  offices  being  from  the  outside;  the  other 
opening  to  a  long,  narrow  court  leading  to  the  inhabited  apartments 
of  the  seraglio,  through  which  passage  the  king  found  access  to  the 
harem  without  being  exposed  to  the  view  of  the  public.  Behind  the 
harem  was  the  Temple  Court,  consisting  of  an  immense  tower,  or  pyra- 
mid, in  seven  stages,  nearly  fifty  yards  high.  The  seven  stages, 
equally  high,  and  each  one  smaller  in  area  than  the  one  below  it,  were 
covered  with  stucco  of  various  colors,  thus  exhibiting  to  view  the  colors 
consecrated  to  the  seven  great  celestial  bodies,  the  least  important  being 
at  the  base.  This  tower  was  the  ziggurat,  or  observatory,  on  whose 
summit  the  priestly  disciples  of  the  Chaldaeans  endeavored  to  divine  the 
future  in  the  stars. 

Sargon's  Before  the  construction  of  the  great  palace  at  Dur-Sargina,  Sar- 
w^k*  gon's  residence  was  at  Calah,  where  he  repaired  the  decayed  palace  of 
Asshur-izir-pal.  He  also  repaired  the  ruined  walls  of  Nineveh,  where 
he  built  a  temple  to  Nebo  and  Merodach.  He  likewise  improved  the 
embankments  at  Babylon,  thus  controlling  and  directing  the  distri- 
bution of  the  waters.  The  number  of  Assyrian  scientific  tablets, 
shown  by  the  dates  upon  them  to  have  been  written  in  his  time,  fully 
attest  his  patronage  of  science. 

Progress  There  was  nothing  significant  in  the  progress  of  mimetic  art  during 
^rtsf  Sargon's  reign,  but  several  branches  of  industry  showed  signs  of  im- 
provement, while  there  was  better  taste  in  design  and  ornamentation. 
At  this  time  transparent  glass  was  first  brought  into  use,  and  intaglios 
were  first  cut  upon  hard  stones.  The  furniture  of  this  period  is  far 
superior  in  design  to  that  of  any  former  age  represented,  while  the 
models  of  sword-hilts,  maces,  armlets  and  other  ornaments  are  singu- 
larly tasteful  and  elegant.  At  this  time  the  enameling  of  bricks  had 
attained  its  highest  degree  of  perfection ;  while  the  styles  of  vases, 
goblets  and  boats  indicate  a  decided  advance  upon  the  same  class  of 
works  of  previous  times.  In  sculpture  the  advance  in  animal  forms 


NEW,   OR   LOWER    ASSYRIAN    EMPIRE. 


183 


in  the  times  of  Tiglath-Pileser  II.  still  went  on  under  Sargon;  and 
the  drawing  of  horses'  heads,  especially,  shows  very  remarkable  ac- 
curacy. 

Sargon  died  in  B.  C.  705,  after  a  glorious  reign  of  seventeen 
years,  and  was  succeeded  on  the  throne  by  his  son,  SENNACHERIB,  the 
most  renowned  of  all  the  Assyrian  kings,  and  of  whom  we  have  such 
long  notices  in  the  Old  Testament.  Sennacherib  reigned  twenty-four 
years,  from  B.  C.  705  to  B.  C.  681.  The  sources  which  we  have 
of  the  annals  of  his  reign  are  the  notices  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures, 
some  fragments  of  Polyhistor  preserved  by  Eusebius,  a  passage  from 
Herodotus  mentioning  his  name,  and  two  records  written  during  his 
reign,  giving  descriptions  of  his  military  exploits  and  his  buildings, 
and  known  respectively  as  the  "  Taylor  Cylinder  "  and  the  "  Bellino 
Cylinder." 

The  Canon  of  Ptolemy  shows  an  interregnum  of  two  years  at  Baby- 
lon, from  B.  C.  704  to  B.  C.  702,  and  Polyhistor  mentions  three  pre- 
tenders to  the  throne  of  Babylonia  during  this  brief  interval.  These 
were  a  brother  of  Sennacherib ;  a  claimant  named  Hagisa ;  and  Mero- 
dach-Baladan,  who  had  escaped  from  captivity,  murdered  Hagisa  and 
resumed  the  throne  of  which  Sargon  had  deprived  him  six  years  be- 
fore. In  B.  C.  703  Sennacherib  led  an  army  into  Babylonia  and  de- 
feated the  troops  of  Merodach-Baladan  and  their  Susianian  auxiliaries, 
took  Babylon  and  overran  Chaldaea,  plundering  (according  to  his  own 
account)  seventy-six  large  towns  and  four  hundred  and  twenty  vil- 
lages. Merodach-Baladan  again  escaped  from  the  country,  and  his 
sons  were  afterwards  found  living  as  refugees  in  Susiana.  Before 
leaving  Babylon,  Sennacherib  appointed  as  tributary  king  an  As- 
syrian named  Belipni — the  Belibus  of  Ptolemy's  Canon,  and  the  Elibus 
of  Polyhistor.  After  returning  from  Babylon,  Sennacherib  ravaged 
the  country  of  the  Aramaeans  on  the  middle  Euphrates,  carrying  into 
captivity  more  than  two  hundred  thousand  inhabitants,  and  seizing 
also  large  numbers  of  horses,  camels,  asses,  oxen  and  sheep.  The  next 
year,  B.  C.  702,  Sennacherib  attacked  the  mountain  tribes  of  the 
Zagros,  driving  from  the  country  Ispabara,  whom  Sargon  had  ele- 
vated to  power,  and  reducing  to  subjection  many  cities,  over  which 
he  placed  Assyrian  governors. 

In  the  fourth  year  of  his  reign,  B.  C.  701,  Sennacherib  engaged  in 
the  most  important  of  all  his  military  expeditions.  This  was  his  in- 
vasion of  Syria,  Phoenicia  and  Palestine,  during  which  he  attacked 
Luliya,  King  of  Sidon,  and  also  Hezekiah,  King  of  Judah.  With 
an  immense  host  he  first  invaded  Phoenicia,  where  Luliya — the  Elu- 
laeus  of  Menander — had  broken  out  into  revolt  during  the  early  years 
of  Sennacherib's  reign.  Luliya  had  made  himself  master  of  most  of 


Sennac- 
herib. 


Sources  of 

His 
Annals. 


Royal 
Pretend- 
ers. 


Defeat  of 
Mero- 
dach- 
Baladan, 
Syrians 

and 
Zagros 
Tribes. 


Sennac- 
herib's 
Conquest 
of  the 
Phoeni- 
cians and 
Philis- 
tines. 


184. 


CHALJXEA,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


His 

Victory 
over  the 

Egyp- 
tians and 

Ethio- 
pians at 
Altaku. 


His 

Triumph 
over 

Hezekiah, 
King  of 
Judah. 


Phoenicia,  including  Tyre,  Akko  and  many  other  leading  cities.  On 
the  approach  of  the  Assyrian  king,  the  Sidonian  chief  fled  from  the 
main-land  and  found  refuge  in  "  an  island  in  the  middle  of  the  sea," 
probably  the  island  of  Tyre,  or  perhaps  Cyprus.  Sennacherib  re- 
ceived the  submission  of  the  Phoenician  cities  which  Luliya  had  ruled, 
and  placed  over  them  a  tributary  prince  named  Tubal.  The  King 
of  Assyria  next  marched  southward  into  Philistia,  and  put  an  end  to 
the  resistance  of  Sidka,  King  of  Ascalon,  who,  with  his  wife,  children 
and  brothers,  were  made  captives;  while  the  city  was  also  taken  and 
another  prince  set  up,  the  revolted  chief  being  carried  a  prisoner  to 
Assyria.  The  towns  of  Hazor,  Joppa,  Bene-berak  and  Beth-Dagon 
— dependencies  of  Ascalon — were  soon  afterwards  taken  and  plun- 
dered. 

The  conquering  Sennacherib  then  took  the  field  against  Egypt, 
whose  Ethiopian  king — the  Sevechus  of  Manetho,  and  the  So  of  Scrip- 
ture— had  come  to  the  support  of  the  revolted  Philistine  city  of  Ekron, 
which  had  expelled  its  king,  Padi,  who  had  remained  loyal  to  Assyria. 
The  Egyptian  army,  consisting  of  chariots,  horsemen  and  archers, 
was  so  large  that  Sennacherib  called  it  "  a  host  that  could  not  be 
numbered."  At  Altaku — believed  to  be  the  Eltekeh  of  the  Jews — 
was  fought  the  second  great  battle  between  the  Assyrians  and  the 
Egyptians.  Again  the  power  of  Asia  triumphed  over  that  of  Africa. 
The  Egyptians  and  Ethiopians  were  defeated  with  frightful  slaugh- 
ter, many  of  their  chariots,  with  their  drivers,  falling  into  the  hands 
of  the  conquering  Assyrians.  In  consequence  of  their  great  victory, 
the  Assyrians  immediately  captured  the  towns  of  Altaku  and  Tamna. 
Rebellious  Ekron  also  at  once  submitted  to  Sennacherib,  opening  its 
gates  to  the  victorious  monarch,  who  inflicted  a  terrible  punishment 
upon  the  rebels,  whose  leaders  were  put  to  death,  their  bodies  being 
exposed  on  stakes  round  the  entire  circuit  of  the  city  walls;  while 
large  numbers  of  inferior  rank  were  sold  into  slavery.  Padi,  the 
expelled  king  who  was  friendly  to  Assyria,  was  restored  to  his  author- 
ity as  king,  tributary  to  the  Assyrian  monarch. 

Besides  the  Egyptians  and  Ethiopians,  the  revolted  city  of  Ekron 
had  Hezekiah,  King  of  Judah,  for  an  ally.  When  the  Ekronites  de- 
posed Padi,  they  seized  him,  loaded  him  with  chains,  and  sent  him 
to  Hezekiah  for  safe  keeping.  To  punish  the  King  of  Judah  for  his 
complicity  in  the  Ekronite  revolt,  "  Sennacherib,  King  of  Assyria, 
came  up  against  all  the  fenced  cities  of  Judah  and  took  them.  And 
Hezekiah,  King  of  Judah,  sent  to  the  King  of  Assyria  to  Lachish, 
saying,  I  have  offended;  return  from  me;  that  which  thou  puttest  on 
me  will  I  bear.  And  the  King  of  Assyria  appointed  unto  Hezekiah, 
King  of  Judah,  three  hundred  talents  of  silver  and  thirty  talents  of 


NEW,   OR   LOWER    ASSYRIAN    EMPIRE. 


185 


gold.  And  Hezekiah  gave  him  all  the  silver  that  was  found  in  the 
house  of  the  Lord,  and  in  the  treasures  of  the  king's  house.  At  that 
time  did  Hezekiah  cut  off  the  doors  of  the  house  of  the  Lord,  and  the 
pillars  which  Hezekiah,  King  of  Judah,  had  overlaid,  and  gave  it  to 
the  King  of  Assyria."  Such  is  the  short  account  of  this  expedition 
of  Sennacherib,  as  recorded  in  the  Second  Book  of  Kings. 

We  will  now  give  the  account  recorded  by  Sennacherib  himself  in 
these  words :  "  Because  Hezekiah,  King  of  Judah,  would  not  submit 
to  my  yoke,  I  came  up  against  him,  and  by  force  of  arms  and  by  the 
might  of  my  power  I  took  forty-six  of  his  strong  fenced  cities ;  and  of 
the  smaller  towns  which  were  scattered  about  I  took  and  plundered  a 
countless  number.  And  from  these  places  I  captured  and  carried  off 
as  spoil  two  hundred  thousand  and  one  hundred  and  fifty  people,  old 
and  young,  male  and  female,  together  with  horses  and  mares,  asses 
and  camels,  oxen  and  sheep,  a  countless  multitude.  And  Hezekiah 
himself  I  shut  up  in  Jerusalem,  his  capital  city,  like  a  bird  in  a  cage, 
building  towers  round  the  city  to  hem  him  in,  and  raising  banks  of 
earth  against  the  gates,  so  as  to  prevent  escape.  *  *  *  Then  upon 
this  Hezekiah  there  fell  the  fear  of  the  power  of  my  arms,  and  he 
sent  out  to  me  the  chiefs  and  the  elders  of  Jerusalem  with  thirty  tal- 
ents of  gold  and  eight  hundred  talents  of  silver,  and  divers  treasures, 
a  rich  and  immense  booty.  *  *  *  All  these  things  were  brought  to 
me  at  Nineveh,  the  seat  of  my  government,  Hezekiah  having  sent  them 
by  way  of  tribute,  and  as  a  token  of  his  submission  to  my  power." 

After  wreaking  his  vengeance  upon  the  people  of  Ekron,  Sennac- 
herib invaded  Judah,  directing  his  march  toward  Jerusalem,  taking 
many  small  towns  and  villages  on  the  way,  and  carrying  two  hundred 
thousand  of  their  inhabitants  into  slavery  and  captivity.  Upon  reach- 
ing Jerusalem  he  laid  siege  to  the  city  in  the  usual  way,  erecting  tow- 
ers around  it,  from  which  stones  and  arrows  were  discharged  against 
the  defenders  of  the  fortifications,  and  "  casting  banks  "  were  hurleo! 
against  the  walls  and  gates.  The  fortifications  of  Jerusalem  were 
weak,  and  there  had  recently  been  many  "  breaches  of  the  city  of 
David."  The  inhabitants  had  hastily  fortified  the  city  by  pulling 
down  the  houses  near  the  wall.  Great  alarm  was  felt  for  the  safety 
of  the  holy  places.  Jerusalem  was  "  full  of  stirs  and  tumult."  The 
people  rushed  to  the  housetops,  and  saw  "  the  choicest  valleys  full  of 
chariots,  and  the  horsemen  set  in  array  at  the  gates."  Then  followed 
"  a  day  of  trouble,  and  of  treading  down,  and  of  perplexity  " — a  day 
of  "  breaking  down  the  walls  and  of  crying  to  the  mountains."  In  the 
midst  of  this  consternation  some  were  made  reckless  by  despair;  so 
that  there  was  a  general  "  call  to  weeping,  and  to  mourning,  and  to 
baldness,  and  to  girdling  with  sackcloth — beholding  joy  and  gladness, 


Sennac- 
herib's 
Account 
Thereof 


His 

Invasion 
of  Judah 
and  Siege 

of 

Jerusa- 
lem. 


186 


CHALD^EA,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Heze- 
kiah's 
Humilia- 
tion and 
Submis- 
sion. 


Mero- 

dach- 

Baladan's 

Revolt, 

Defeatand 

Flight. 


Heze- 
kiah's 
Second 
Revolt 

and 
Alliance 

with 
Egypt. 


Sennac- 
herib's 
Demand, 
Heze- 
kiah's 
Defiance 

and 

Isaiah's 
Prophecy. 


slaying  oxen  and  killing  sheep,  eating  flesh  and  drinking  wine — '  Let 
us  eat  and  drink,  for  to-morrow  we  shall  die.' '  Seeing  the  hopeless- 
ness of  further  resistance,  Hezekiah  offered  to  surrender  upon  terms 
which  Sennacherib  granted.  It  was  agreed  that  Hezekiah  should  pay 
an  annual  tribute  of  thirty  talents  of  gold  and  three  hundred  talents  of 
silver,  and  that  he  should  also  give  up  the  chief  treasures  of  the  city  as 
a  "  present "  to  the  Great  King.  To  procure  an  adequate  supply  of 
gold,  Hezekiah  was  obliged  to  strip  the  walls  and  pillars  of  the  Temple 
of  this  precious  metal,  with  which  they  were  partly  overlaid.  He  gave 
up  all  the  silver  from  the  royal  treasury  and  from  the  treasury  of  the 
Temple,  which  amounted  to  five  hundred  talents  more  than  the  fixed 
rate  of  tribute.  Besides  these  sacrifices  the  Jewish  king  was  obliged 
to  deliver  up  Padi,  the  Ekronite  king  whom  he  had  held  in  captivity, 
and  was  forced  to  surrender  certain  parts  of  his  territories  to  the 
neighboring  Philistine  kings. 

After  this  triumph  over  Hezekiah,  Sennacherib  returned  to  Nin- 
eveh, and  in  the  following  year,  B.  C.  700,  he  led  an  expedition  into 
Babylonia,  where  Merodach-Baladan,  with  the  aid  of  Susub,  a  Chal- 
dsean  prince,  had  again  risen  in  arms  against  the  authority  of  the  As- 
syrian monarch.  After  defeating  Susub,  Sennacherib  marched  upon 
Beth-Yakin,  and  compelled  Merodach-Baladan  to  flee  for  refuge  to  one 
of  the  islands  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  leaving  his  brothers  and  adherents 
to  the  conqueror's  mercy.  Upon  returning  to  Babylon,  Sennacherib 
removed  the  viceroy  Belibus,  whom  he  blamed  for  disloyalty  or  incom- 
petency,  appointing  in  his  stead  his  own  eldest  son,  Asshur-inadi-su, 
the  Asordanes  of  Polyhistor,  and  the  Aparanadius,  or  Assaranadius, 
of  Ptolemy's  Canon. 

The  dates  of  the  remaining  events  of  Sennacherib's  reign  can  not 
be  fixed  with  certainty,  Ptolemy's  Canon  taking  no  account  of  any 
subsequent  event  recorded  in  the  inscriptions  of  this  reign.  It  is 
believed  that  his  second  expedition  into  Palestine  occurred  B.  C.  699, 
Hezekiah  having  again  revolted  against  the  Assyrian  king,  and  en- 
tered into  an  alliance  with  the  Ethiopian  King  of  Egypt,  Tehrak,  or 
Tirhakah.  Sennacherib  directed  his  expedition  first  against  his  more 
powerful  foe,  and  marched  his  army  through  Palestine  southward  to 
Libnah  and  Lachish,  laying  siege  to  the  latter  city,  and  sending  a 
detachment  of  his  army,  under  a  Tartan,  or  general,  supported  by  two 
high  officers  of  his  court — the  Rabshakeh,  or  Chief  Cupbearer,  and 
the  Rab-saris,  or  Chief  Eunuch — to  demand  the  surrender  of  Jerusa- 
lem. Hezekiah  sent  high  dignitaries  to  treat  with  the  Assyrians  en- 
camped outside  the  city  walls,  but  the  Assyrian  envoys  demanded  the 
unconditional  submission  of  the  Jewish  king  and  people.  The  Rab- 
shakeh, or  Chief  Cupbearer,  familiar  with  the  Hebrew  language,  took 


NEW,   OR   LOWER    ASSYRIAN    EMPIRE.  137 

the  word  and  delivered  the  message  in  insolent  phraseology,  laughing 
at  Hezekiah's  simplicity  in  relying  upon  Egypt,  and  at  his  foolish 
superstition  in  depending  upon  a  Divine  deliverance,  and  defiantly  ask- 
ing the  Jewish  king  to  produce  two  thousand  disciplined  soldiers  capa- 
ble of  serving  as  horsemen.  Then  the  prophet  "  Isaiah  said  unto  them, 
Thus  shall  ye  say  unto  your  master,  Thus  saith  the  Lord,  'Be  not 
afraid  of  the  words  which  thou  hast  heard,  with  which  the  servants  of 
the  King  of  Assyria  have  blasphemed  me.  Behold,  I  will  send  a  blast 
upon  him,  and  he  shall  hear  a  rumor,  and  shall  return  to  his  own  land ; 
and  I  will  cause  him  to  fall  by  the  sword  in  his  own  land.'"  When 
asked  to  speak  in  some  other  language  rather  than  the  Hebrew,  for 
fear  that  the  people  upon  the  walls  might  hear,  the  intrepid  envoy,  in 
utter  disregard  of  diplomatic  courtesy,  made  a  loud  and  direct  appeal 
to  the  fears  and  hopes  of  the  people. 

Finally,  after  seeing  that  they  could  make  no  impression  upon  the     Sennac- 
Jewish  king  or  people,  and  regarding  their  military  detachment  as      Letter, 

inadequate  for  a  siege,  the  Assyrian  ambassadors  returned  to  their      Heze- 

kiah's 
sovereign  at  Libnah  and  informed  him  of  their  failure.     Thereupon     Prayer 

Sennacherib  sent  other  messengers  with  a  letter  to  Hezekiah,  remind-  a?* 
ing  him  of  the  fate  of  other  kingdoms  and  nations  which  had  the  hardi-  Prophecy, 
hood  to  resist  the  mighty  Assyrian  power,  and  again  urging  the  Jew- 
ish king  to  submit.  Hezekiah  took  this  letter  into  the  Temple,  where 
he  "spread  it  before  the  Lord,"  praying:  "Lord,  bow  down  thine  ear, 
and  hear ;  open,  Lord,  thine  eyes,  and  see ;  and  hear  the  words  of  Sen- 
nacherib, which  hath  sent  him  to  reproach  the  living  God."  There- 
upon the  prophet  Isaiah  declared  to  his  afflicted  sovereign  that  Jehovah 
would  "put  his  hook  in  Sennacherib's  nose,  and  his  bridle  in  his  lips, 
and  turn  him  back  by  the  way  by  which  he  came."  The  prophet  fur- 
ther declared:  "Therefore  thus  saith  the  Lord  concerning  the  King 
of  Assyria,  He  shall  not  come  into  this  city,  nor  shoot  an  awow  there, 
nor  come  before  it  with  shield,  nor  cast  a  bank  against  it.  By  the  way 
that  he  came,  by  the  same  shall  he  return,  and  shall  not  come  into  this 
city,  saith  the  Lord.  For  I  will  defend  this  city,  to  save  it,  for  mine 
own  sake,  and  for  my  servant  David's  sake." 

After  receiving  the  submission  of  Libnah,  Sennacherib  advanced  herib's 
toward  Egypt,  and  had  come  within  sight  of  the  Egyptian  army  at  March 
Pelusium  when  Hezekiah  received  his  letter  and  made  the  prayer  to  the 

which  Isaiah  delivered  the  response.     The  immense  host  of  the  Egyp-  , .  E27P~ 

4  .  .        &<7  *      tians  and 

tians  and  Assyrians  encamped  opposite  each  other  for  the  night,  the     Destruc- 

Egyptians  and  their  king  full  of  anxious  alarm,  and  Sennacherib  and  n 
his  Assyrians  in  proud  confidence  of  a  victory  on  the  morrow  as  grand       by  a 
as  those  of  Raphia  and  Altaku.     But  these  bright  hopes  were  des-     p^f^  at 
tined  to  sad  disappointment.     Ere  the  morrow  appeared  the  immense  Pelusium. 
1—15 


188 


CHALD.EA,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Sennac- 
herib's 

Victories 
in 

Armenia. 


Chaldaean 

Migration 

to 

Susiana. 


Sennac- 
herib's 
Phoni- 
cian  Fleet 
in  the 
Tigris. 


Assyrian  host  was  destroyed  in  a  night  panic.  Says  the  Hebrew  rec- 
ord :  "  And  it  came  to  pass  that  night,  that  the  angel  of  the  Lord 
went  out,  and  smote  in  the  camp  of  the  Assyrians  an  hundred  four- 
score and  five  thousand;  and  when  they  arose  early  in  the  morning, 
behold,  they  were  all  dead  corpses."  While  the  Hebrews  ascribed  this 
destruction  of  Sennacherib's  army  to  the  miraculous  interposition  of 
Jehovah,  the  Egyptians  regarded  their  deliverance  as  the  special  in- 
tervention of  their  own  gods,  and  pursued  the  fleeing  Assyrian  hosts, 
distressing  their  retreating  columns  and  cutting  off  stragglers.  The 
haughty  Sennacherib  returned  to  Nineveh  with  the  shattered  remnants 
of  his  mighty  host,  shorn  of  his'  glory.  The  proud  capital  of  Assyria 
was  plunged  into  such  grief  and  despair  as  is  beyond  the  power  of 
the  historian  to  describe.  The  Assyrian  annals  say  nothing  of  this 
disastrous  campaign. 

According  to  Sennacherib's  own  annals,  his  fifth  campaign  was  in 
a  mountainous  country  called  Nipur,  or  Nibur,  supposed  to  be  near 
Mount  Ararat.  He  there  took  many  towns,  and  then  moving  west- 
ward toward  the  Taurus  range  bordering  on  Cilicia,  he  warred  with 
Maniya,  King  of  Dayan,  and,  according  to  his  own  boast,  plundered 
and  ravaged  the  country,  burned  the  towns  and  carried  away  the  in- 
habitants, their  flocks  and  herds,  and  their  valuables. 

His  next  contest  was  a  fierce  struggle  of  three  years  with  the  Baby- 
lonians and  Susianians.  The  Chaldaeans  of  Beth-Yakin,  dissatisfied 
with  the  Assyrian  yoke,  migrated  in  a  body  from  their  own  city  to  the 
territory  of  the  King  of  Susiana.  Carrying  with  them  their  gods  and 
their  treasures,  they  set  sail  in  their  ships,  crossed  "  the  Great  Sea  of 
the  Rising  Sun  " — the  Persian  Gulf — and  landed  on  the  Elamite,  or 
Susianian  coast,  where  they  were  kindly  received  by  the  Susianian  mon- 
arch, who  allowed  them  to  build  a  new  city  on  his  territory.  This 
voluntary  desertion  of  Beth-Yakin  by  its  own  people  aroused  the  anger 
of  the  Assyrian  king,  who  accordingly  determined  to  bring  back  his 
deserting  subjects  to  their  native  city,  and  to  his  dominion,  by  force 
of  arms. 

The  suzerainty  of  Assyria  over  Phoenicia  had  placed  at  the  Assyrian 
king's  disposal  the  most  skilled  shipwrights  and  the  best  sailors  in  the 
world,  and  Sennacherib  resolved  to  invade  Susiana  by  sea  to  reclaim 
his  emigrant  subjects.  The  shipwrights  of  Tyre  and  Sidon  were 
therefore  set  to  work  at  building  a  fleet  of  war-galleys  on  the  Tigris. 
This  fleet,  manned  by  Phoenician  sailors,  descended  the  river  to  the 
Persian  Gulf,  astonishing  the  inhabitants  on  the  shores  with  a  spec- 
tacle never  before  seen  in  those  waters.  The  Chaldaeans,  who  had 
navigated  those  waters  for  many  centuries,  were  far  inferior  as  ship- 
builders and  mariners  to  the  Phoenicians,  whose  ships,  with  their  masts, 


' 


SHIPS   OF  SENNACHERIB  ON   THE  TIGRIS 

From  a  Sculpture  found  at  Koyunjuk 


NEW,   OR   LOWER    ASSYRIAN    EMPIRE. 


189 


sails,  double  tiers  of  oars  and  sharp  beaks,  were  novelties  to  the  nations 
in  these  parts. 

Sennacherib,  in  his  Phoenician  ships,  crossed  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Tigris  to  the  new  settlement  of  the  emigrant  Chaldaeans,  destroyed 
their  newly-built  city,  captured  the  deserters,  ravaged  the  vicinity, 
burned  many  Susianian  towns,  and  transported  his  captives,  Chaldaean1 
deserters  and  Susianians,  across  the  gulf  to  Chaldaea,  and  thence  took 
them  to  Assyria.  The  Susianians,  not  expecting  an  invasion  by  sea, 
had  assembled  an  army  near  their  north-western  frontier,  so  that  Sen- 
nacherib had  found  no  force  to  oppose  him  when  he  landed  on  the 
Susianian  coast. 

Taking  advantage  of  circumstances,  the  Babylonians  now  revolted 
and  set  up  a  king  of  their  own  called  Susub ;  but  the  Babylonian  army 
was  defeated  by  the  Assyrian  troops  upon  their  return  from  Susiana, 
Susub  being  captured ;  and  the  Susianian  army  which  had  come  to  the 
aid  of  the  revolted  Babylonians  was  routed.  Susub  and  many  other 
captives  were  carried  to  Nineveh. 

Kudur-Nakhunta,  who  was  still  King  of  Susiana,  held  the  cities  of 
Beth-Kahiri  and  Raza,  which  Sennacherib  regarded  as  part  of  his 
paternal  inheritance.  The  Assyrian  king  now  easily  retook  these 
towns,  and  leading  his  army  into  the  heart  of  Susiana,  took  and  burned 
thirty- four  large  cities  and  many  small  villages.  After  besieging  and 
laking  by  storm  Vadakat,  or  Badaca,  the  second  city  of  Susiana,  after 
it  had  been  abandoned  by  Kudur-Nakhunta,  Sennacherib  returned  to 
Nineveh  with  a  large  booty. 

Susub,  the  Babylonian  prince,  having  escaped  from  his  captivity 
at  Nineveh,  returned  to  Babylon,  where  he  was  again  hailed  as  king 
by  the  inhabitants.  He  secured  the  alliance  of  the  new  King  of  Susi- 
ana, Ummanminan,  the  younger  brother  and  successor  of  Kudur- 
Nakhunta,  by  sending  him  as  a  present  the  gold  and  silver  belonging 
to  the  great  temple  of  Bel  at  Babylon.  The  Susianian  monarch  at 
once  led  an  army  to  the  Tigris,  while  many  Aramaean,  or  Syrian,  tribes 
on  the  middle  Euphrates,  which  Sennacherib  had  subjugated  in  his 
third  year,  revolted,  and  their  army  joined  that  of  Susub.  Sennac- 
herib defeated  the  allied  host  in  a  great  battle  at  Khaluli,  a  town  on 
the  Lower  Tigris,  both  Susub  and  the  Susianian  king  escaping,  but 
Nebosumiskun,  a  son  of  Merodach-Baladan,  and  many  other  chiefs, 
being  made  prisoners.  Sennacherib  entered  Babylon  in  triumph,  de- 
stroyed its  fortifications,  pillaged  and  burned  its  temples,  and  broke 
to  pieces  the  images  of  the  gods.  Either  Regibelus,  or  Mesesimor- 
dachus,  whom  the  Canon  of  Ptolemy  makes  contemporary  with  the 
middle  part  of  Sennacherib's  reign,  is  believed  to  have  been  placed 
ever  the  rebel  city  as  viceroy  by  the  conqueror. 


His 

Forced 
Return 
of  the 
Emigrant 
Chal- 
daeans. 


Baby- 
lonian 
Revolt 
Crushed. 


Defeat  of 

Kudur 

Nak- 

hunta, 

King  of 

Susiana. 


Renewed 
Baby- 
lonian 
Revolt 

Quelled. 


190 


CHALD^A,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Sennac- 
herib's 
Conquest 

of 
Cilicia. 


Founding 

of 
Tarsus. 


Baby- 
lonian 
Independ- 
ence. 


Sennac- 
herib's 
Great- 
ness. 


His 

Inscrip- 
tion. 


Sennac- 
herib's 
Great 
Palace  at 
Nineveh. 


Sennacherib  is  said  to  have  also  led  an  expedition  against  Cilicia,j 
and,  according  to  Abydenus,  a  Greek  writer,  a  Grecian  fleet  was  beaten 
by  the  Assyrian  fleet  on  the  Cilician  shores ;  while  according  to  Poly- 
histor,  Sennacherib's  army  defeated  a  Greek  land  force  in  Cilicia  itself ; 
after  which  Sennacherib  took  possession  of  Cilicia,  in  which  country 
he  built  the  city  of  Tarsus,  afterwards  renowned  as  the  birth-place  of 
St.  Paul.  Among  the  inscriptions  of  Sennacherib's  wars  upon  the 
Koyunjik  bulls  is  one  stating  that  he  "  triumphantly  subdued  the  men 
of  Cilicia  inhabiting  the  inaccessible  forests." 

The  Canon  of  Ptolemy  marks  an  interregnum  at  Babylon  for  eight 
years,  from  B.  C.  688  to  B.  C.  680,  the  year  of  Esar-haddon's  acces- 
sion; from  which  circumstance  it  is  evident  that  Babylonia  had  again 
thrown  off  the  Assyrian  yoke  and  maintained  her  independence  for 
eight  years. 

Thus  the  military  glory  of  Sennacherib,  the  greatest  and  best-known 
of  Assyrian  kings,  was  tarnished  by  two  great  disasters — the  destruc- 
tion of  his  army  at  Pelusium  by  a  night  panic  during  his  war  with 
Hezekiah  of  Judah  and  Tirhakah  of  Egypt,  and  the  successful  revolt 
of  Babylon  just  mentioned.  Still  he  was  the  most  illustrious  and  the 
most  successful  of  Assyrian  warrior  kings.  In  his  inscription  Sen- 
nacherib calls  himself  "  the  great  king,  the  powerful  king,  the  king 
of  nations,  the  king  of  Assyria,  the  king  of  the  four  regions,  the  dili- 
gent ruler,  the  favorite  of  the  great  gods,  the  observer  of  sworn  faith, 
the  guardian  of  the  law,  the  embellisher  of  public  buildings,  the  noble 
hero,  the  strong  warrior,  the  first  of  kings,  the  punisher  of  unbelievers,, 
the  destroyer  of  wicked  men." 

Sennacherib  takes  the  first  rank  among  Assyrian  monarchs  as  an 
architect  and  patron  of  art,  as  well  as  that  of  a  warrior.  The  gigantic 
palace  erected  by  him  at  Nineveh  surpassed  in  dimensions  and  grand- 
eur all  previously-built  structures,  and  covered  an  area  of  more  than 
eight  acres.  The  grand  halls  and  smaller  chambers  of  this  vast  and 
magnificent  edifice  were  arranged  around  at  least  three  courts  or  quad- 
rangles, which  were  respectively  one  hundred  and  fifty-four  by  one 
hundred  and  twenty-five  feet,  one  hundred  and  twenty-four  by  ninety 
feet,  and  ninety-three  by  eighty-four  feet.  Small  apartments  were 
grouped  around  the  smallest  of  these  courts.  A  narrow  passage  lead- 
ing out  of  a  long  gallery,  two  hundred  and  eighteen  by  twenty-five 
feet,  opened  the  way  to  the  king's  seraglio.  This  gallery  was  entered 
through  two  other  passages,  one  leading  from  each  of  the  two  main 
courts.  The  principal  halls  were  immediately  within  the  two  chief 
entrances,  one  on  the  north-east,  and  the  other  on  the  south-west  front 
of  the  palace.  One  of  these  seems  to  have  been  one  hundred  and  sixty 
feet  long,  and  the  other  one  hundred  and  eighty  feet,  while  each  was. 


NEW,    OR   LOWER    ASSYRIAN    EMPIRE.  19 

a  little  over  forty  feet  wide.  The  palace  had  about  twenty  other 
rooms,  and  from  forty  to  fifty  smaller  chambers,  about  square,  entered 
from  some  hall  or  large  apartment.  Mr.  Layard  says  he  explored 
seventy-one  chambers,  including  the  three  courts,  the  long  gallery  and 
four  passages.  Sennacherib's  famous  royal  building,  like  other  As- 
syrian architectural  works,  was  built  on  an  artificial  platform,  eighty 
or  ninety  feet  above  the  plain,  and  covered  with  a  brick  pavement.  It 
is  believed  to  have  had  three  grand  fa9ades,  respectively  on  the  north- 
east, south-east  and  south-west  sides.  Its  chief  apartment  was  first 
entered  by  the  visitor.  All  the  walls  ran  in  straight  lines,  and  all  the 
angles  of  the  rooms  were  right  angles.  Although  there  were  numerous 
passages,  the  apartments  in  many  instances  directly  opened  into  one 
another,  nearly  half  of  the  rooms  being  passage-rooms.  The  doorways 
were  usually  towards  the  corners  of  the  apartments.  In  many  cases  a 
room  was  entered  by  two  or  three  doorways  from  another  room  or  from 
a  court.  There  were  also  many  square  recesses  in  the  sides  of  rooms. 
The  walls  were  very  thick.  The  apartments,  never  much  over  forty 
feet  wide,  were  comparatively  narrow  for  their  length,  but  the  courts 
were  much  better  proportioned.  Sennacherib's  palace  differed  from 
others  in  the  size  and  number  of  its  rooms,  in  its  use  of  passages  and  in 
its  style  of  ornamentation.  His  principal  state  apartments  were  one- 
third  wider,  though  very  little  longer,  and  thus  were  in  better  propor- 
tion. But  one  gallery,  connecting  the  more  public  portion  of  the 
building  with  the  harem,  or  private  apartments,  formed  a  corridor, 
two  hundred  and  eighteen  feet  long  by  twenty-five  feet  wide,  uniting 
the  two  parts  of  the  palace.  This  corridor  communicated  by  passages 
with  the  two  public  courts,  which  were  also  joined  by  a  third  passage. 
Timber  from  Lebanon  and  Amanus  was  used  in  the  roofing  of  this 
palace. 

Sennacherib's  ornamentation  was  marked  by  the  first  general  use  its 
of  the  background  in  completing  each  scene,  as  it  really  existed  at  "™*men 
the  time  and  place  of  its  occurrence.  Mountains,  rocks,  trees,  roads, 
rivers  and  lakes  were  represented  with  the  highest  degree  of  perfection 
which  the  ability  of  the  artist  and  the  means  and  facilities  at  his  com- 
mand would  permit.  In  Sennacherib's  bas-reliefs  the  species  of  trees 
is  distinguished;  gardens,  fields,  ponds,  reeds,  etc.,  are  portrayed  with 
great  exactness;  wild  animals,  such  as  stags,  boars  and  antelopes,  are 
illustrated;  birds  are  represented  flying  from  one  tree  to  another,  or 
standing  over  their  nests  feeding  their  young  as  they  stretch  up  to 
receive  the  food;  fish  swim  in  the  water;  fishermen,  boatmen  and  agri- 
cultural laborers  are  depicted ;  the  entire  scene  being  striking  and  real 
in  appearance.  On  the  walls  of  the  passages  of  Sennacherib's  palace 
are  depicted  ordinary  scenes  of  every-day  life.  Trains  of  servants 


192  CHAUXEA,   ASSYRIA,   BABYLONIA. 

daily  bring  to  the  royal  residence  game  and  locusts  for  the  monarch's 
dinner,  and  cakes  and  fruits  for  his  dessert,  just  as  they  walked  through 
the  courts  carrying  the  delicacies  for  which  he  displayed  special  fond- 
ness. In  another  place  is  exhibited  the  work  of  carving  and  transport- 
ing a  gigantic  bull  of  solid  stone,  from  the  removal  of  the  material 
from  the  quarry,  to  its  elevated  position  on  a  palace-mound  as  part 
of  the  great  entrance-passage  of  the  royal  dwelling.  The  trackers 
are  shown  dragging  the  huge  rough  block,  supported  on  a  low  flat- 
bottomed  boat,  along  the  course  of  a  river,  divided  in  gangs  perform- 
ing their  work  under  taskmasters  who  ply  their  rods  upon  the  most 
trifling  provocation.  The  trackers,  three  hundred  in  number,  in  their 
national  costumes,  are  each  delineated  with  the  utmost  precision.  We 
next  see  the  stone  block  conveyed  to  land,  and  carved  into  the  rough 
likeness  of  a  bull,  and  in  that  shape  it  is  set  on  a  sledge  and  moved 
along  level  ground  by  gangs  of  laborers,  arranged  very  much  as 
before,  to  the  base  of  the  mound,  at  the  top  of  which  it  must  be  located. 
The  building  of  the  mound  is  illustrated  in  detail.  Brick-makers  are 
represented  moulding  the  bricks  at  the  foot  of  the  mound,  and  work- 
men are  seen  with  baskets  at  their  backs,  filled  with  earth,  bricks,  stones 
or  rubbish,  climbing  the  ascent  after  the  mound  is  partially  raised,  and 
emptying  their  burdens  upon  the  top.  The  bull  on  the  sledge  is  then 
drawn  up  an  inclined  plane  to  the  summit  by  four  gangs  of  laborers, 
before  the  eyes  of  the  king  and  his  attendants.  The  carving  is  then 
finished,  and  the  gigantic  figure  is  set  into  an  upright  position  and 
dragged  along  the  surface  of  the  platform  to  the  place  assigned  it. 
Sennac-  Sennacherib  also  restored  the  old  royal  palace  at  Nineveh.  He  built 
'other-8  a  brick  embankment  on  the  banks  of  the  Tigris  to  confine  the  river  to 
Works,  its  channel,  and  supplied  his  capital  with  good  water  by  constructing 
for  that  purpose  a  system  of  canals  and  aqueducts.  He  strengthened 
the  defenses  of  Nineveh  by  the  erection  of  colossal  towers  at  some  of 
the  brick  gateways.  Lastly,  he  erected  a  temple  to  the  god  Nergal 
at  Tarbisi  (now  Sherif  Khan),  on  the  Tigris,  about  three  miles  above 
Nineveh. 

His  Sennacherib's  conquering  expeditions  into  other  lands  furnished  him 

ment°of  w^  a  sufficient  amount  of  forced  labor,  which  he  employed  in  the  con- 
Forced  struction  of  his  great  works.  The  Bellino  Cylinder  tells  us  that  he 
employed  Chaldaeans,  Aramaeans,  or  Syrians,  Armenians,  Cilicians,  and 
Quhu,  or  Coans,  in  this  way.  A  bull-inscription  informs  us  that  in 
one  raid  he  carried  into  slavery  two  hundred  and  eight  thousand 
Aramaeans.  By  this  means  the  colossal  bulls  of  stone  were  transported 
and  elevated,  the  vast  mounds  built,  the  bricks  moulded,  the  walls  of 
edifices  erected,  the  canals  excavated  and  embankments  constructed. 
They  were  forced  to  labor  in  gangs,  under  the  rods  of  brutal  and  exact- 


NEW,   OR  LOWER   ASSYRIAN   EMPIRE. 


108 


ing  taskmasters,  and  in  their  respective  national  costumes.  The  work 
was  directed  by  Assyrian  foremen,  and  the  forced  laborers  were  fre- 
quently compelled  to  work  in  fetters,  sometimes  supported  by  a  bar 
fastened  to  the  waist,  and  sometimes  consisting  of  shackles  around  the 
ankles.  The  king,  standing  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  his  attendants, 
often  witnessed  the  laborers  at  their  task. 

Sennacherib's  glorious  reign  of  twenty-four  years  experienced  a  sad 
end.  The  great  monarch  fell  a  victim  to  a  plot  of  assassination  on 
the  part  of  his  sons,  Adrammelech  and  Sharezer.  He  was  slain  while 
at  worship  in  a  temple ;  and  his  son  Nergilus,  who  claimed  the  crown, 
was  also  soon  murdered  by  his  brothers,  Adrammelech  and  Sharezer; 
but  these  were  soon  overthrown  by  their  brother  ESAR-HADDON,  who, 
in  command  of  the  army  on  the  Armenian  frontier,  marched  to  Nineveh 
and  was  recognized  as  the  rightful  successor  to  his  father's  throne. 

The  year  of  Sennacherib's  assassination  and  Esar-haddon's  accession 
was  B.  C.  681,  according  to  the  Assyrian  Canon — the  year  just  before 
his  first  year  in  Babylon  on  the  authority  of  the  Canon  of  Ptolemy. 
This  is  to  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  a  king  was  not  entered 
on  the  Babylonian  list  until  the  Thoth  which  followed  his  accession, 
and  the  Thoth  in  this  instance  occurred  in  February.  Thus  the  Baby- 
lonian dates  are  generally  one  year  later  than  the  Assyrian,  and  the 
two  Canons  are  seen  to  harmonize  with  remarkable  precision. 

Esar-haddon  held  the  throne  for  thirteen  years,  and  reigned  alter- 
nately at  Nineveh  and  Babylon,  thus  placing  the  two  great  capitals 
on  an  equality,  and  reconciling  the  Babylonians  to  the  Assyrian  rule. 
Esar-haddon's  inscriptions  show  that  he  was  engaged  for  some  time 
after  the  opening  of  his  reign  in  a  civil  war  with  his  half-brothers, 
who,  at  the  head  of  large  bodies  of  troops,  contested  his  claims  to  the 
Assyrian  crown.  Esar-haddon,  who,  at  the  time  of  his  father's  death, 
was  stationed  on  the  Armenian  frontier,  at  once  marched  upon  Nine- 
veh, defeated  the  army  of  his  brothers  in  the  country  of  Khanirabbat, 
north-west  of  Nineveh,  and  entered  the  capital,  where  he  was  univer- 
sally acknowledged  king.  Abydenus  says  that  Adrammelech  fell  in 
the  battle,  but  better  authorities  state  that  both  he  and  his  brother 
Sharezer  escaped  into  Armenia,  where  the  ruling  sovereign  treated  them 
with  kindness,  bestowing  upon  them  lands,  which  long  remained  in  the 
possession  of  their  posterity. 

Our  information  of  Esar-haddon's  reign  is  mainly  derived  from  a 
cylinder  inscription,  existing  in  duplicate,  which  records  nine  cam- 
paigns. A  memorial  which  he  set  up  at  the  mouth  of  the  Nahr-el- 
Kelb,  and  a  cylinder  of  his  son's,  give  us  some  additional  knowledge 
concerning  the  closing  portion  of  his  reign.  The  Ola  Testament,  in 
several  instances,  connects  him  with  Jewish  history;  and  Abydenus  al- 
roi.  1.— IS 


Assassi- 
nation of 
Sennac- 
herib. 


Esar- 
haddon. 


Authority 

of  the 

Two 

Canons. 


Esar- 
haddon's 
Civil  War 

with 

His 

Brothers. 


Sources 

of 

Infonna 
ticm  of 

His 
Reign. 


194 


CHALD^A,   ASSYRIA,   BABYLONIA. 


Phoeni- 
cian 
Revolt 
Sup- 
pressed. 


Capture 
and 

Destruc- 
tion of 
Sidon. 


Conquests 

in 
Armenia. 


Cilician 

Revolt 

Quelled. 


Con- 
quests in 

Syria, 
Armenia, 

Chaldaea 

and 
Bdom. 


ludes  to  some  of  his  foreign  conquests.  An  incomplete  cylinder  in- 
scription of  Esar-haddon's  reign  contains  accounts  of  his  civil  war  with 
his  brothers  and  also  his  Arabian  and  Syrian  expeditions. 

Esar-haddon's  first  expedition  was  into  Phoenicia.  The  civil  dis- 
sensions resulting  from  Sennacherib's  murder  encouraged  a  revolt  in 
that  region  on  the  part  of  Abdi-Milkut,  King  of  Sidon,  and  Sandu- 
arra,  King  of  the  neighboring  portion  of  Lebanon,  who  had  entered 
into  an  alliance  to  cast  off  the  Assyrian  yoke.  Esar-haddon  first  at- 
tacked Sidon  and  soon  took  the  city,  and  Abdi-Milkut  sought  refuge 
in  an  island,  either  Aradus  or  Cyprus,  but  was  pursued  and  made  pris- 
oner by  Esar-haddon,  who,  it  was  said,  traversed  the  sea  "  like  a  fish." 
Esar-haddon  next  attacked  Sandu-arra  in  his  mountain  fastnesses, 
defeated  his  troops  and  took  him  prisoner.  Both  captive  kings  were 
executed  in  punishment  for  their  rebellion;  the  walls  of  Sidon  were 
destroyed,  its  inhabitants  and  those  of  the  whole  neighboring  coast 
were  carried  off  into  Assyria,  and  thence  dispersed  among  the  prov- 
inces ;  while  a  new  city  was  built  and  named  after  Esar-haddon,  which 
was  designed  to  succeed  Sidon  as  the  leading  city  in  this  region,  and 
Chaldaean  and  Susianian  captives  were  colonized  in  the  new  city  and 
the  adjacent  country,  over  which  an  Assyrian  governor  was  appointed. 

Esar-haddon's  second  campaign  was  in  Armenia,  where  he  took  a 
city  named  Arza,  which,  he  says,  was  in  the  neighborhood  of  Muzr, 
and  carried  away  its  inhabitants,  along  with  a  number  of  mountain  ani- 
mals, settling  the  captives  "  beyond  the  eastern  gate  of  Nineveh."  At 
the  same  time  he  received  the  submission  of  Tiuspa,  the  Cimmerian. 

Esar-haddon's  third  •  campaign  was  in  Cilicia  and  the  adj  acent  re- 
gions. The  Cilicians,  so  recently  subdued  by  Sennacherib,  re-asserted 
their  independence  at  his  death,  and  formed  an  alliance  with  the  Tiba- 
reni,  or  people  of  Tubal,  who  occupied  the  high  mountain  district 
about  the  junction  of  Amanus  and  Taurus.  After  defeating  the 
Cilicians,  Esar-haddon  invaded  the  mountain  region,  where  he  took 
twenty-one  towns  and  many  villages,  all  of  which  he  plundered  and 
burned,  carrying  the  inhabitants  into  captivity. 

Esar-haddon  next  conducted  a  petty  war  in  Northern  Syria,  and  an- 
other in  South-eastern  Armenia  against  the  Mannai,  or  Minni.  He 
then  made  an  expedition  into  Chaldaea,  against  Nebo-zirzi-sidi,  Mero- 
dach-Baladan's  son,  who,  aided  by  the  Susianians,  had  regained  a  foot- 
ing on  the  Chaldaean  coast;  while  his  brother,  Nahid-Marduk,  sought 
the  favor  of  the  Assyrian  king,  quitting  his  refuge  in  Susiana  to  pre- 
sent himself  before  the  Great  King's  footstool  at  Nineveh.  After 
subduing  Nebo-zirzi-sidi,  Esar-haddon  bestowed  the  entire  coast  dis- 
trict previously  ruled  by  that  prince  on  Nahid-Marduk.  At  the  same 
time  the  Assyrian  king  deposed  Shamas-ipni,  a  Chaldaean  prince,  who 


NEW,   OR   LOWER   ASSYRIAN    EMPIRE. 


196 


had  extended  his  sway  over  a  small  town  in  the  vicinity  of  Babylon, 
putting  Nebo-sallim  in  his  place.  Esar-haddon  next  engaged  in  a 
war  with  Edom,  where  he  took  a  city  bearing  the  same  name  as  the 
country — a  city,  which  he  says,  had  been  previously  taken  by  his  father 
— transporting  the  inhabitants  into  Assyria,  and  carrying  away  cer- 
tain of  the  Edomite  gods.  Thereupon  the  Edomite  king,  Hazael,  sent 
an  embassy  to  Nineveh,  to  offer  submission  and  presents,  while  he  also 
begged  the  Assyrian  monarch  to  restore  his  gods  and  permit  them  to 
be  returned  to  Edom.  This  humble  request  was  granted  by  Esar- 
haddon,  who  restored  the  images  to  the  envoy;  but  he  increased  the 
annual  tribute  by  sixty-five  camels,  and  appointed  to  the  succession, 
or  joint  sovereignty  of  the  throne  of  Edom,  a  woman  named  Tabua, 
who  had  been  born  and  brought  up  in  his  own  palace. 

Esar-haddon's  next  expedition  was  into  a  country  named  Bazu,  said 
to  be  "  remote,  on  the  extreme  confines  of  the  earth,  on  the  other  side 
of  the  desert."  This  country  was  reached  by  traversing  a  hundred 
and  forty  farsakhs  (four  hundred  and  ninety  miles)  of  sandy  desert, 
then  twenty  farsakhs  (seventy  miles)  of  fertile  land,  and  beyond  that 
a  stony  region.  None  of  Esar-haddon's  predecessors  had  ever  pene- 
trated so  far  "  into  the  middle  of  Arabia."  Bazu  was  located  beyond 
Khazu,  the  stony  tract,  and  its  principal  city  was  Yedih,  which  was 
ruled  by  a  king  named  Laile.  The  country  here  noticed  is  supposed 
to  have  been  the  region  of  the  modern  Arabian  kingdom  of  Hira. 
Esar-haddon  boasts  that  he  marched  into  the  middle  of  this  region, 
that  he  slew  eight  of  its  kings,  and  carried  their  gods,  their  treasures 
and  their  subjects  into  Assyria;  and  that  Laile's  gods  were  also  con- 
veyed to  Nineveh,  though  Laile  himself  escaped.  Laile,  like  the 
Edomite  monarch,  went  to  Nineveh,  and,  prostrating  himself  at  the 
footstool  of  the  Assyrian  king,  humbly  requested  the  return  of  the 
images  of  his  gods.  This  request  Esar-haddon  granted,  but  only  on 
the  condition  that  Laile  became  one  of  his  tributaries.  In  this  inva- 
sion of  Arabia,  Esar-haddon  led  an  army  across  the  deserts  which  en- 
close that  country  on  the  land  side,  and  penetrated  to  the  more  fertile 
tracts  beyond  them,  a  region  of  cities  and  fixed  settlements,  where  he 
took  towns  and  carried  off  their  plunder  to  Assyria.  This  invasion 
was  a  most  remarkable  success,  taking  in  account  the  natural  perils  of 
the  desert,  and  the  warlike  character  of  its  inhabitants,  who  have  never 
fully  bowed  to  the  yoke  of  any  foreign  conqueror.  The  dangers  of 
the  simoom  and  the  aridity  of  the  northern  portion  of  Arabia,  with 
the  difficulty  of  carrying  water  and  provisions  for  a  large  army,  and 
the  perils  of  plunging  into  the  wilderness  with  a  small  one,  have  de- 
terred most  Oriental  conquerors  from  even  the  thought  of  leading  an 
expedition  into  this  dreary  and  desolate  region.  Esar-haddon  is  the 


Esar- 
haddon's 
Success- 
ful 
Invasion 

of 
Arabia. 


196 


CHALD^A,   ASSYRIA,   BABYLONIA. 


Suppres- 
sion 
of  a 
Syrian 
Revolt. 


Success- 
ful 

Invasion 
of  Media. 


Other 
Sources 
of  Esar- 
haddon's 
Annals. 


His 
Conquest 

of 
Egypt. 


only  monarch  who  ever  ventured  upon  the  hazardous  undertaking  of 
penetrating  in  person  into  this  vast  desert  land. 

Esar-haddon  next  invaded  the  marshy  region  on  the  Euphrates, 
where  the  Aramasan  tribe  of  Gambulu  dwelt,  as  he  says,  "  like  fish,  in 
the  midst  of  the  waters."  The  sheikh  of  this  tribe  had  revolted,  but 
submitted  on  the  approach  of  the  Assyrian  monarch,  bringing  in  per- 
son the  arrears  of  his  tribute  and  a  present  of  buffaloes,  thereby  seek- 
ing to  propitiate  his  suzerain.  Esar-haddon  says  that  he  forgave  him, 
and  strengthened  his  capital  with  fresh  works  of  defense  and  garri- 
soned it,  making  it  a  stronghold  to  protect  the  country  against  the 
attacks  of  the  Susianians. 

Esar-haddon's  last  expedition  recorded  on  his  principal  cylinder, 
which  was  not  apparently  led  by  the  king  personally,  was  against  the 
country  of  Bikni,  or  Bikan,  a  remote  part  of  Media,  supposed  to  be 
Azerbijan.  None  of  his  predecessors  had  ever  penetrated  this  region, 
which  was  governed  by  many  petty  chiefs,  each  of  whom  ruled  over  his 
own  town  and  its  surrounding  territory,  and  whose  names  illustrate 
their  Aryan  character.  Esar-haddon  carried  two  of  these  chiefs  cap- 
tive to  Assyria,  whereupon  the  others  submitted,  agreeing  to  pay  trib- 
ute and  to  share  their  power  with  Assyrian  officers. 

The  various  expeditions  of  Esar-haddon  already  described  have  been 
made  known  to  us  from  his  cylinder  inscriptions;  but  his  conquest  of 
Egypt  and  his  punishment  and  pardon  of  Manasseh,  King  of  Judah 
— the  greatest  and  most  interesting  events  of  his  reign — have  been 
brought  to  our  knowledge  from  other  sources.  All  that  we  know  of 
the  circumstances  of  Esar-haddon's  conquest  of  Egypt  is  derived  from 
an  imperfect  transcript  of  the  Nahr-el-Kelb  tablet,  and  the  brief  an- 
nals of  his  son  and  successor,  Asshur-bani-pal,  who  alludes  to  his  fath- 
er's proceedings  in  Egypt,  for  the  purpose  of  making  known  the  con- 
dition of  affairs  when  he  himself  invaded  that  country. 

It  thus  appears  that  Esar-haddon  led  a  large  army  into  Egypt  about 
B.  C.  670,  won  a  great  victory  over  the  forces  of  Tirhakah,  or  Tehrak, 
the  reigning  Ethiopian  sovereign  of  that  country,  took  Memphis,  his 
capital,  and  conquered  the  entire  Nile  valley  as  far  southward  as 
Thebes,  taking  Thebes  itself.  Tirhakah  fled  into  Ethiopia,  leaving 
Esar-haddon  master  of  all  Egypt  as  far  as  Thebes,  the  Diospolis  of 
the  Greeks  and  the  No,  or  No-Amon,  of  the  Old  Testament.  The  con- 
quering Assyrian  king  weakened  Egypt  by  dividing  the  country  into 
twenty  governments,  appointing  a  petty  king  in  each  town,  but  plac- 
ing all  the  others  under  the  rule  of  the  prince  reigning  at  Memphis. 
This  Memphite  prince  was  Neko,  the  father  of  Psammetichus,  or 
Psamatik  I.,  a  native  Egyptian  mentioned  both  by  Herodotus  and 
Manetho;  and  the  other  petty  kings  were  also  native  Egyptians,  with 


NEW,   OR   LOWER   ASSYRIAN   EMPIRE. 


197 


a  few  exceptions  where  Assyrian  officers  were  appointed  governors. 
After  thus  arranging  the  government  of  Egypt,  and  setting  up  his 
tablet  at  the  mouth  of  the  Nahr-el-Kelb  beside  that  of  Rameses  the 
Great,  Esar-haddon  returned  to  Assyria  and  began  to  introduce 
sphinxes  into  the  ornamentation  of  his  palaces,  at  the  same  time  add- 
ing to  his  previous  titles  the  following:  "  King  of  the  kings  of  Egypt, 
and  conqueror  of  Ethiopia."  This  title  does  not  occur  on  the  cylin- 
ders, but  appears  on  the  back  of  the  slabs  at  the  entrance  of  the  south- 
west palace  of  Nimrud,  where  the  sphinxes  are  found,  and  also  on  a 
bronze  lion  dug  up  at  the  Nebbi-Yunus  mound  of  Nineveh,  and  on 
the  slabs  of  Esar-haddon's  palace  at  Sherif-Khan. 

The  revolt  of  Manasseh,  King  of  Judah,  occurring  about  the  time 
of  Esar-haddon's  conquest  of  Egypt,  was  suppressed  by  the  "  cap- 
tains of  the  host  of  the  King  of  Assyria."  These  Assyrian  generals 
invaded  Judah  to  subdue  Manasseh,  and  "  took  and  bound  him  with 
chains,  and  carried  him  to  Babylon,"  where  Esar-haddon  had  erected 
a  palace  for  himself  and  frequently  held  his  court.  The  Great  King 
at  first  treated  his  royal  captive  with  severity,  and  Manasseh's  afflic- 
tion is  said  to  have  humbled  his  pride  and  to  have  led  him  to  humiliate 
himself  before  Jehovah  and  to  repent  of  his  cruelties  and  idolatries. 
According  to  the  Book  of  Chronicles,  God  "  was  entreated  of  him,  and 
heard  his  supplication,  and  brought  him  back  again  to  Jerusalem  into 
his  kingdom."  Esar-haddon  generously  pardoned  Manasseh  for  his 
defection,  and  sent  him  back  to  Jerusalem,  restoring  him  to  his  throne, 
on  the  condition  of  paying  an  increased  tribute  to  his  Assyrian 
suzerain. 

To  augment  the  Assyrian  power  in  Palestine,  Esar-haddon  deter- 
mined to  strengthen  the  foreign  element  already  introduced  into  the 
country  by  Sargon,  who,  as  we  have  seen,  colonized  Samaria  with  for- 
eign settlers  from  Babylon,  Cutha,  Sippara,  Ava,  Hamath  and  Arabia. 
Esar-haddon  settled  colonists  in  Palestine  collected  from  Babylon, 
Erech,  or  Orchoe,  Susa,  Elymais,  Persia,  and  other  surrounding  na- 
tions, and  placed  them  under  an  officer  of  high  rank — "  the  great  and 
noble  Asnapper." 

When  intelligence  of  Esar-haddon's  illness  reached  Egypt  in  B.  C. 
669,  Tirhakah,  the  Ethiopian  king,  whom  Esar-haddon  had  driven  out 
of  Egypt  the  previous  year,  at  once  descended  the  Nile  from  Ethiopia, 
drove  out  the  petty  kings  set  over  Egypt  by  the  Assyrian  monarch, 
and  reestablished  his  authority  over  all  Egypt.  Esar-haddon  there- 
upon resigned  the  crown  of  Assyria  to  his  son  Asshur-bani-pal,  but 
retained  that  of  Babylonia,  residing  in  Babylon  until  his  death  shortly 
afterward,  B.  C.  668,  when  Asshur-bani-pal  succeeded  to  the  sover- 
eignty of  the  whole  empire. 


Revolt 

of 

Manas- 
seh, King 
of  Judah, 

Sup- 
pressed. 


His 

Captivity 
and  Res- 
toration. 


Esar- 
haddon's 
Coloniza- 
tions in 
Palestine. 


Ethio- 
pian 
Recon- 
quest  of 
Egypt. 


Esar- 
haddon's 
Resigna- 
tion and 

Death. 


198  CHALDiBA,   ASSYRIA,   BABYLONIA. 

His  Esar-haddon  was  one  of  the  most  active  of  Assyria's  royal  builders 

Palaces  anc^  architects.  During  his  short  reign  of  thirteen  years  he  erected 
four  palaces  and  more  than  thirty  temples.  Three  of  his  great  pal- 
aces were  located  respectively  at  Babylon,  Nineveh  and  Calah;  but 
that  at  Calah,  or  Nimrud,  is  the  only  one  which  has  been  explored 
to  any  great  extent,  and  even  the  ground-plan  of  that  has  been  but 
imperfectly  traced.  This  palace  had  never  been  finished,  its  ornamen 
tation  had  hardly  been  commenced,  and  the  small  portion  of  this  that 
was  original  had  been  so  seriously  injured  by  a  destructive  fire  that  it 
perished  immediately  upon  its  discovery.  We  must  therefore  rely  for 
our  knowledge  of  Esar-haddon's  sculptures  upon  the  report  of  persons 
who  saw  them  before  they  were  destroyed,  and  upon  one  or  two  draw- 
ings; and  our  only  knowledge  of  the  palace  is  derived  from  a  half- 
explored  fragment  of  a  half -finished  palace  destroyed  by  the  flames 
before  its  completion. 

His  Esar-haddon's  palace  at  Calah  was  built  at  the  south-western  corner 

Palace  of  ^he  Nimrud  mound,  abutting  towards  the  west  on  the  Tigris,  and 
Calah.  towards  the  valley  formed  by  the  Shor-Derreh  torrent.  It  faced 
northward  and  was  entered  on  this  side  from  the  open  space  of  the  plat- 
form, through  a  portal  guarded  by  two  winged  man-headed  bulls. 
The  entrance  led  into  a  large  court,  two  hundred  and  eighty  by  one 
hundred  feet,  bounded  on  the  north  side  by  a  mere  wall,  but  surrounded 
by  buildings  on  the  east,  west  and  south  sides.  The  chief  building 
was  opposite,  and  was  entered  from  the  court  by  two  gateways,  one 
directly  facing  the  great  northern  portal  of  the  court,  and  the  other 
slightly  to  the  left,  the  former  being  guarded  by  colossal  winged  man- 
headed  bulls,  and  the  latter  only  reveted  with  slabs.  These  gateways 
both  opened  into  the  same  room,  the  design  of  which  was  on  the  most 
magnificent  scale  of  all  the  Assyrian  apartments,  but  it  was  so  thor- 
oughly broken  up,  through  the  architect's  inability  to  cover  the  wide 
space  without  sufficient  supports,  that  this  room  virtually  constituted 
four  chambers  of  moderate  size  rather  than  one  grand  hall.  As  one 
apartment  this  room  was  one  hundred  and  sixty-five  feet  long  by  sixty- 
two  feet  wide.  Viewed  as  a  suite  of  four  chambers,  the  rooms  ap- 
peared to  be  two  long  and  narrow  halls  running  parallel  to  each  other, 
and  connected  by  a  grand  doorway  in  the  middle,  with  two  smaller 
chambers  located  at  the  two  ends,  running  at  right  angles  with  the 
principal  ones.  The  smaller  chambers  were  sixty-two  feet  long,  and 
respectively  nineteen  feet  and  twenty-three  feet  wide.  The  larger 
ones  were  one  hundred  and  ten  feet  long,  and  respectively  twenty  feet 
and  twenty-eight  feet  wide.  Fergusson's  account  of  the  grand  apart- 
ment of  this  palace  is  as  follows :  "  Its  general  dimensions  are  one  hun- 
dred and  sixty-five  feet  in  length,  by  sixty-two  feet  in  width;  and  it 


NEW.   OR   LOWER   ASSYRIAN    EMPIRE.  igg 

consequently  is  the  largest  hall  yet  found  in  Assyria.  The  architects, 
however,  do  not  seem  to  have  been  quite  equal  to  roofing  so  large  a 
space,  even  with  the  number  of  pillars  with  which  they  seem  usually 
to  have  crowded  their  floors ;  and  it  is  consequently  divided  down  the 
center  by  a  wall  supporting  dwarf  columns,  forming  a  center  gallery, 
to  which  access  was  had  by  bridge  galleries  at  both  ends,  a  mode  of 
arrangement  capable  of  great  variety  and  picturesqueness  of  effect, 
and  of  which  I  have  little  doubt  that  the  builders  availed  themselves 
to  the  fullest  extent."  The  inner  one  of  the  two  long  parallel  cham- 
bers was  connected  by  a  grand  doorway,  guarded  by  sphinxes  and 
colossal  lions,  either  with  a  small  court  or  with  a  large  chamber  extend- 
ing to  the  southern  edge  of  the  mound;  while  the  two  end  rooms  were 
connected  with  smaller  apartments  in  the  same  direction,  but  Mr.  Lay- 
ard's  excavations  here  were  incomplete.  The  buildings  on  the  right 
and  left  sides  of  the  great  court  appear  to  have  been  wholly  separate 
from  those  at  its  southern  end.  Those  on  the  left  have  not  been 
explored,  but  on  the  right  several  long  narrow  apartments,  with  one 
or  two  passages,  have  been  examined.  Eastward  the  palace  has  not 
been  explored,  and  its  extent  northward,  southward  and  westward  is 
not  certain.  Southward  and  westward  the  mound  has  been  worn  away 
by  the  Tigris  and  the  Shor-Derreh  torrent.  The  walls  of  Esar-had- 
don's  palace  were  built  of  sun-dried  bricks,  reveted  with  alabaster  slabs, 
taken  from  the  decayed  palaces  of  his  predecessors.  Ere  the  new 
sculptures  on  these  slabs  were  completed  Esar-haddon  died,  and  the 
work  ceased,  or  the  palace  was  ruined  by  fire.  The  only  sculptures 
finished  were  the  winged  man-headed  bulls  and  lions  at  the  various  por- 
tals, a  few  bas-reliefs  near  them,  and  some  sphinxes  within  the  span  of 
the  two  widest  doorways.  These  sphinxes  were  Egyptian  in  idea,  but 
had  the  horned  cap  like  those  on  the  bulls,  the  Assyrian  arrangement 
of  hair,  Assyrian  ear-rings,  and  wings  like  those  of  the  bulls  and  lions. 
The  figures  near  the  lions  were  mythic,  and,  according  to  Mr.  Lay- 
ard's  representations,  were  more  than  ordinarily  grotesque. 

The  inscriptions  give  us  a  full  account  of  the  character  of  Esar-  Hia 
haddon's  buildings  and  their  ornamentation.  These  inform  us  that  ^?.lace  * 
the  thirty-six  temples  which  this  king  erected  in  Assyria  and  Baby- 
lonia were  profusely  adorned  with  plates  of  gold  and  silver,  making 
them  "  as  splendid  as  the  day."  His  palace  at  Nineveh,  located  on 
the  Nebbi-Yunus  mound,  was  said  to  have  been  built  upon  the  site 
of  a  former  palace  of  the  Assyrian  kings.  The  materials  for  its  con- 
struction were  procured  from  different  countries;  the  Phoenician,  Syr- 
ian and  Cyprian  kings  sending  to  Nineveh  for  this  purpose  great 
beams  of  cedar,  cypress  and  ebony,  stone  statues,  and  various  works  in 
different  kinds  of  metal.  The  size  of  this  palace  is  said  to  have  sur- 


200 


Excava- 
tions at 
Nineveh. 


Esar- 
haddon's 

Other 
Palaces. 


His 
Death. 


Asshur- 
bani-pal. 


His  First 
Conquest 

of 
Egypt 


passed  all  the  structures  of  former  kings.  Carved  beams  of  cedar 
wood  were  used  in  roofing  this  edifice,  which  was  partly  supported  by 
columns  of  cypress  wood,  ornamented  with  rings  of  silver  and  strength- 
ened with  iron  bands.  Winged  man-headed  bulls  and  lions  guarded 
the  portals ;  and  the  gates  were  made  of  ebony  and  cypress  ornamented 
with  iron,  silver  and  ivory;  while  the  walls  were  adorned  with  sculp- 
tured slabs  and  enameled  bricks. 

The  prejudice  of  the  present  Mohammedan  inhabitants  against  dis- 
turbing their  dead,  and  against  violating  the  tomb  of  Jonah,  has  thus 
far  prevented  satisfactory  excavations  of  the  Nebbi-Yunus  mound. 
Mr.  Layard  stealthily  made  a  slight  excavation  in  this  mound,  thus 
discovering  a  few  fragments  bearing  Esar-haddon's  name.  Turkish 
excavations  soon  afterwards  uncovered  a  long  line  of  wall  of  one  of 
Sennacherib's  palaces,  and  likewise  a  part  of  Esar-haddon's  palace. 
On  the  outside  surface  of  the  former  were  winged  man-headed  bulls  in 
high  relief,  sculptured  seemingly  after  the  wall  was  erected,  each  bull 
covering  ten  or  twelve  distinct  stone  blocks.  A  slab-inscription  ob- 
tained from  this  palace  was  published  in  the  British  Museum  Series. 
A  bronze  lion  with  legend  was  obtained  from  Esar-haddon's  palace. 

We  know  nothing  of  Esar-haddon's  palace  at  Babylon,  which  now 
lies  buried  beneath  the  mounds  at  Hillah.  Mr.  Layard  and  Sir  Henry 
Rawlinson  have  carefully  examined  the  Sherif-Khan  palace,  which  was 
found  to  be  very  much  inferior  to  the  ordinary  Assyrian  royal  resi- 
dences, being  only  a  dwelling  erected  by  Esar-haddon  for  his  eldest 
son,  and  it  also  is  believed  to  have  been  unfinished  when  the  king  died. 

After  a  reign  of  thirteen  years,  Esar-haddon,  "  King  of  Assyria, 
Babylonia,  Egypt,  Meroe  and  Ethiopia,"  as  he  calls  himself  in  his 
later  inscriptions,  died  in  B.  C.  668,  and  was  succeeded  on  his  throne 
by  his  eldest  son,  ASSHUR-BANI-PAL,  whom  he  had  already  associated 
in  the  government.  Asshur-bani-pal,  upon  his  accession,  appointed 
to  the  viceroyalty  of  Babylon  his  younger  brother,  Saul-Mugina, 
called  Sammughes  by  Polyhistor,  and  Saosduchinus  by  the  Canon  of 
Ptolemy. 

Upon  his  succession,  Asshur-bani-pal  found  himself  involved  in  a 
war  with  Egypt.  Late  in  Esar-haddon's  reign  Tirhakah,  the  Ethio- 
pian king,  descended  the  Nile,  recovered  Thebes,  Memphis  and  other 
Egyptian  cities,  and  expelled  the  princes  and  governors  appointed  by 
Esar-haddon  when  he  had  conquered  the  country.  Asshur-bani-pal, 
soon  after  his  accession,  led  an  expedition  through  Syria  into  Egypt, 
and  defeated  the  Ethiopian  and  Egyptian  army  near  the  city  of  Kar- 
banit.  Tirhakah  at  once  fled  from  Memphis,  sailing  up  the  Nile  to 
Thebes;  and  being  pursued  by  the  Assyrians  to  the  latter  place,  the 
Ethiopian  king  continued  his  retreat  up  the  Nile  valley,  leaving  all 


NEW,   OR   LOWER    ASSYRIAN    EMPIRE.  201 

Egypt  north  of  Thebes  in  the  possession  of  the  Assyrian  monarch. 
Asshur-bani-pal  restored  the  princes  and  rulers  whom  his  father  had 
placed  over  Egypt,  and  whom  Tirhakah  had  expelled;  and,  after  a 
short  rest  at  Thebes,  returned  in  triumph  by  way  of  Syria  to  Nineveh. 

No  sooner  had  the  Assyrian  king  left  Egypt  than  intrigues  to  re-  His 
store  the  Ethiopian  power  commenced.  Neko  and  other  Egyptian  conquest 
governors  restored  by  Asshur-bani-pal  deserted  the  Assyrian  cause  and  of 
sided  with  the  Ethiopians.  The  governors  who  remained  loyal  to 
Assyria  tried  to  suppress  the  revolt;  Neko  and  several  other  rebel  lead- 
ers were  carried  in  chains  to  Assyria;  and  Sais,  Tanis,  Mendes  and 
other  revolted  Egyptian  cities  were  punished.  The  revolt  was,  how- 
ever, successful,  and  Tirhakah  having  reestablished  himself  at  Thebes, 
threatened  to  again  extend  his  sway  over  the  entire  Nile  valley.  But 
when  Asshur-bani-pal  forgave  Neko  and  sent  him  back  to  Egypt  with 
a  large  Assyrian  army,  Tirhakah  again  fled  to  Upper  Egypt,  where 
he  died  shortly  afterwards.  Tirhakah's  stepson  and  successor,  Urda- 
mane  —  believed  to  be  the  Rud-Amun  of  the  hieroglyphics  —  descended 
the  Nile  valley  with  an  army,  defeated  the  Assyrians  near  Memphis, 
forced  them  to  seek  refuge  within  its  walls,  besieged  and  took  the  city, 
and  regained  possession  of  Lower  Egypt.  Upon  hearing  of  this,  As- 
shur-bani-pal left  Asshur,  and  leading  an  expedition  personally  against 
the  new  Ethiopian  monarch,  drove  him  from  Memphis  to  Thebes, 
and  thence  to  the  city  of  Kipkip,  far  up  the  Nile.  After  entering 
Thebes  in  triumph  and  sacking  the  city,  and  again  placing  governors 
over  the  Egyptian  cities  and  taking  hostages  to  secure  their  loyalty, 
Asshur-bani-pal  returned  to  Nineveh  with  his  plunder  of  gold,  silver, 
ebony,  ivory,  obelisks,  precious  stones,  dyed  garments,  monkeys  and 
elephants  of  the  Theban  palace,  male  and  female  captives. 

Between  his  first  and  second  expeditions  into  Egypt,  Asshur-bani-        His 
pal  attacked  Tyre,  whose  king,  Baal,  had  incurred  his  displeasure,  and,     «f  xvre° 
reducing  him  to  submission,  exacted  from  him  a  large  tribute,  which        and 


he  sent  to  Nineveh.     About  the  same  time  Asshur-bani-pal  married  a 
Cilician  princess.     Soon  after  his  second  expedition  into  Egypt,  Ass-     Minor. 
hur-bani-pal  invaded  Asia  Minor,  crossing  the  Taurus  mountains  and 
penetrating  a  region  never  before  entered  by  an  Assyrian  king;  and, 
after  reducing  a  number  of  towns,  he  returned  to  Nineveh,  where  he 
received  an  embassy,  of  which  he  gives  the  following  account  :  "  Gyges,       Sub- 
King  of  Lydia,  a  country  on  the  sea-coast,  a  remote  place,  of  which  mQSi°g 
the  kings  my  ancestors  had  never  even  heard  the  name,  had  formerly     King  of 
learned  in  a  dream  the  fame  of  my  empire,  and  had  sent  officers  to  my 
presence  to  perform  homage  on  his  behalf."     The  Lydian  king  now 
sent  a  second  time  to  Asshur-bani-pal  and  told  him  that  since  his  sub- 
mission he  defeated  the  Cimmerians,  who  had  formerly  ravaged  his 


202 


CHALD^EA,   ASSYRIA,   BABYLONIA. 


Conquest 
of  Minni 

and 
Paddiri. 


Susia- 
nian 

Invasion 
of  Baby- 
lonia 
Repelled. 


Dynastic 
Revolu- 
tion in 
Susiana. 


country,  and  he  begged  him  to  accept  Cimmerian  chiefs  whom  he  had 
taken  captive  in  battle,  along  with  other  presents,  which  the  Assyrian 
monarch  regarded  as  "  tribute."  About  the  same  time  Asshur-bani- 
pal  repulsed  an  attack  by  the  "  King  of  Kharbat "  on  a  district  of 
Babylonia,  and  after  taking  Kharbat  transported  its  inhabitants  to 
Egypt. 

Asshur-bani-pal  next  invaded  Minni,  or  Persarmenia,  the  mountain 
region  about  Lakes  Van  and  Urumiyeh.  Akhsheri,  the  King  of  Minni, 
having  lost  his  capital,  Izirtu,  and  several  other  cities,  was  murdered 
by  his  subjects;  and  his  son,  Vahalli,  was  forced  to  submit,  and  sent 
an  embassy  to  Nineveh  to  do  homage,  with  tribute,  presents  and  hos- 
tages. Asshur-bani-pal  received  the  envoys  graciously,  pardoned  Va- 
halli and  kept  him  on  the  throne  of  Minni,  but  compelled  him  to  pay 
a  heavy  tribute.  Asshur-bani-pal  also  conquered  a  region  called  Pad- 
diri, which  his  predecessors  had  separated  from  Minni,  but  which  he 
annexed  to  his  own  dominion,  placing  an  Assyrian  governor  over  it. 

Asshur-bani-pal  next  engaged  in  a  struggle  of  twelve  years  with 
Elam,  or  Susiana.  Certain  tribes,  pressed  by  famine,  had  passed  from 
Susiana  into  the  Assyrian  dominions,  where  they  were  permitted  to 
settle;  but  when,  after  the  famine  had  ceased,  they  wished  to  return 
to  their  former  home,  Asshur-bani-pal  would  not  agree  to  their  re- 
moval. Urtaki,  King  of  Susiana,  resented  this  by  invading  Babylonia, 
and  was  aided  by  Belu-bagar,  King  of  the  Gambulu,  an  important 
Aramaean  tribe.  Saiil-Mugina,  Asshur-bani-paFs  brother  and  viceroy 
at  Babylon,  greatly  alarmed,  sent  to  Nineveh  for  aid.  Thereupon  an 
Assyrian  army  drove  the  Susianian  monarch  out  of  Babylonia,  inflict- 
ing upon  him  a  severe  defeat  before  he  escaped  and  returned  to  Susa, 
where  he  died  within  a  year. 

A  dynastic  revolution  in  Susiana  now  proved  of  great  advantage  to 
the  Assyrians.  Urtaki  had  wrested  the  Susianian  throne  from  his 
elder  brother,  Umman-aldas.  At  his  death,  his  younger  brother, 
Temin-Umman,  usurped  the  crown ;  and  the  sons  of  Umman-aldas  and 
those  of  Urtaki,  who  claimed  the  Susianian  crown,  only  saved  their 
lives  by  fleeing  to  Nineveh  with  their  relatives  and  adherents,  and  put- 
ting themselves  under  the  protection  of  the  Assyrian  monarch.  Thus 
Asshur-bani-pal,  in  the  expedition  which  he  now  undertook,  had  a 
party  which  favored  him  in  Susiana  itself ;  but  Temin-Umman  strength- 
ened himself  by  alliances  with  two  descendants  of  Merodach-Baladan, 
who  had  principalities  upon  the  Persian  Gulf  coast,  with  two  sons  of 
Belu-bagar,  sheikh  of  the  Gambulu,  with  two  mountain  chiefs,  one  a 
blood  relation  of  the  Assyrian  king,  and  with  several  inferior  chief- 
tains. Asshur-bani-pal  defeated  the  allies,  took  Temin-Umman  pris- 
oner, executed  him,  and  exposed  his  head  over  one  of  the  gates  of 


NEW,   OR    LOWER    ASSYRIAN    EMPIRE. 


203 


Nineveh.  He  then  divided  Susiana  between  Urtaki's  sons,  Umman-ibi 
and  Tammarit,  establishing  the  former  at  Susa,  and  the  latter  at  a 
town  called  Khidal,  in  Eastern  Susiana.  A  son  of  Temin-Umman  was 
executed  with  his  father.  Several  of  Merodach-Baladan's  grandsons 
suffered  mutilation.  A  Chaldaean  prince  and  a  chieftain  of  the  Gam- 
bulu  had  their  tongues  torn  out  by  the  roots.  Another  Gambulu  chief 
was  beheaded.  Two  of  Temin-Umman's  principal  officers  were  chained 
and  flayed.  By  these  cruelties  Asshur-bani-pal  expected  to  strike 
terror  into  his  enemies. 

No  sooner,  however,  had  the  Assyrians  returned  to  Nineveh  than 
fresh  troubles  broke  out.  Asshur-bani-pal's  own  brother,  Saiil-Mu- 
gina,  dissatisfied  with  his  subordinate  position  as  viceroy  of  Babylon, 
rebelled,  and,  declaring  himself  King  of  Babylon,  obtained  a  number 
of  important  allies.  These  were  Umman-ibi,  who,  though  he  had  re- 
ceived his  crown  from  Asshur-bani-pal,  had  been  bribed  by  gift  of 
treasure  from  the  Babylonian  temples ;  Vaiteha,  a  powerful  Arabian 
prince ;  and  Nebo-bel-sumi,  a  surviving  grandson  of  Merodach-Bala- 
dan.  Saiil-Mugina's  fair  prospects  of  success  were  blighted  by  do- 
mestic troubles  in  Susiana,  where  Umman-ibi  was  defeated  and  slain  in 
a  civil  war  with  his  brother  Tammarit,  who  thus  became  King  of  all 
Susiana.  Tammarit,  however,  entered  into  an  alliance  with  Saiil-Mu- 
gina;  but  while  absent  with  his  army  in  Babylonia,  a  mountain  chief 
from  Luristan  named  Inda-bibi,  or  Inda-bigas,  excited  a  revolt  in 
Susiana  and  seized  the  throne;  and  Tammarit,  deserted  by  his  army, 
was  obliged  to  flee  and  seek  safety  in  concealment,  while  the  Susianian 
army  returned  home.  While  Saiil-Mugina  thus  lost  the  most  impor- 
tant of  his  allies,  Asshur-bani-pal  had  overrun  the  northern  Babylonian 
provinces  and  besieged  and  took  the  Babylonian  towns  one  after  an- 
other. Saiil-Mugina  was  taken  prisoner  by  Asshur-bani-pal,  who  pun- 
ished his  rebel  brother  more  terribly  than  any  of  his  other  captured 
enemies,  burning  him  alive. 

A  lull  of  some  years  in  actual  hostilities  between  Assyria  and  Susiana 
followed.  Inda-bibi  having  given  refuge  to  Nebo-bel-sumi,  and  hav- 
ing repeatedly  refused  to  surrender  the  fugitive  prince  as  demanded 
by  the  Assyrian  king,  was  killed  by  the  commander  of  his  archers,  a 
second  Umman-aldas,  who  then  usurped  the  Susianian  throne.  At  the 
same  time  many  pretenders  claimed  the  Susianian  crown,  and  Asshur- 
bani-pal  again  demanded  the  surrender  of  Nebo-bel-sumi,  who  would 
have  been  given  up  had  he  not  committed  suicide.  About  B.  C.  645 
Asshur-bani-pal  invaded  Susiana,  took  the  strongly-fortified  town  of 
Bit-Imbi  by  siege,  drove  Umman-aldas  into  the  mountain  region  of 
Susiana,  took  Susa,  Badaca  and  twenty-four  other  cities,  and  assigned 
the  government  of  Western  Susiana  to  Tammarit,  who,  after  his  flight 
1—16 


Asshur- 
bani- 
pal's 
First 
Success- 
ful Inva- 
sion of 
Susiana. 


His 
Brother 

Saiil- 
Mugina's 
Revolt  at 
Babylon. 

His 
Allies. 


His 
Capture 

and 
Death. 

Dissen- 
sions in 
Susiana. 


Asshur- 
bani-pal's 
Second 
Success- 
ful 
Invasion 

of 
Susiana. 


204 


CHAIJXEA,   ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


His 

Final 

Conquest 

of 

Susiana. 


Revolt  of 

Egypt 

and 

Lydia. 


Resub- 

mission  of 

Lydia. 

Asshur- 
bani-pal's 
Success- 
ful Cam- 
paign in 
Arabia. 


from  Babylonia,  had  become  a  fugitive  at  the  court  of  Assyria.  Um- 
man-aldas  was  allowed  to  retain  the  sovereignty  of  Eastern  Susiana. 

Tammarit,  in  order  to  cast  off  his  vassalage  to  the  Assyrian  mon- 
arch, plotted  to  massacre  all  the  foreign  garrisons  in  his  dominions, 
but  was  carried  a  prisoner  to  Nineveh,  and  Western  Susiana  was  put 
under  military  rule.  Umman-aldas,  in  his  mountain  fastness,  collected 
a  new  army,  and  took  possession  of  Bit-Imbi  the  following  spring ;  but 
unable  to  resist  the  Assyrian  assaults,  he  soon  evacuated  the  town,  and 
defended  himself  in  his  entire  retreat  to  Susa,  holding  the  different 
strong  towns  and  rivers  in  succession.  But  the  Assyrians  drove  him 
from  post  to  post,  and  finally  took  both  Susa  and  Badaca,  thus  again 
placing  Susiana  at  Asshur-bani-pal's  mercy,  all  the  towns  making 
their  submission,  while  Umman-aldas  was  carried  a  prisoner  to  Nineveh. 
Inflamed  with  rage  on  account  of  the  revolt,  Asshur-bani-pal  plun- 
dered the  Susianian  capital  of  its  treasures,  among  which  were  eighteen 
images  of  gods  and  goddesses,  thirty-two  statues  of  former  Susianian 
kings,  including  those  of  Kudur-Nakhunta  and  Tammarit.  He  also 
gave  the  other  Susianian  cities  to  be  pillaged  by  his  soldiers  for  a 
period  of  almost  two  months.  He  then  annexed  Susiana  to  the  Assyr- 
ian Empire,  thus  closing  this  Susianian  war,  after  it  had  lasted,  with 
short  intervals,  for  twelve  years. 

While  Asshur-bani-pal  was  thus  engaged  in  Susiana  and  Babylonia, 
Psammetichus  declared  himself  independent  in  Egypt  and  began  a 
war  against  the  petty  Egyptian  princes  who  remained  steadfast  in 
their  loyalty  to  their  Assyrian  suzerain.  In  Asia  Minor,  Gyges,  King 
of  Lydia,  who  had  so  recently  done  homage  to  Assyria,  sent  aid  to 
the  Egyptian  rebel.  Egypt  cast  off  the  Assyrian  yoke;  but  Gyges 
was  slain  in  a  terrible  struggle  with  the  Cimmerians,  who  had  spread 
desolation  throughout  his  dominions ;  and  Ardys,  his  successor  on  the 
Lydian  throne,  renewed  the  homage  to  the  Assyrian  king  which  his 
father  had  relinquished. 

Asshur-bani-pal  next  engaged  in  an  important  war  with  some  Arab 
tribes  of  the  desert  who  had  aided  Saul-Mugina  in  his  revolt  against 
his  brother  and  suzerain.  The  Arab  leader  in  this  war  was  Vaiteha, 
whose  allies  were  Natun,  or  Nathan,  King  of  the  Nabathaeans,  and 
Ammu-ladin,  King  of  Kedar.  The  whole  border  of  Arabia  from  the 
Persian  Gulf  to  Syria,  and  thence  southward  by  Damascus  to  Petra, 
was  the  scene  of  military  operations  in  this  war.  Petra,  Moab,  Edom, 
Zoar  and  several  other  cities  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Assyrians. 
The  Arabs  were  defeated  with  great  slaughter  in  the  final  battle  at 
Khukhuruna,  in  the  mountains  near  Damascus ;  and  the  two  Arab 
chiefs  who  had  aided  Saiil-Mugina  were  carried  captives  to  Nineveh, 
and  there  publicly  executed. 


NEW,    OR   LOWER    ASSYRIAN    EMPIRE. 


Thus  ended  the  annals  of  Asshur-bani-pal,  who  was  the  most  enter- 
prising  and  the  most  powerful  of  Assyrian  warrior  kings,  and  who 
extended  the  Assyrian  Empire  in  every  direction  beyond  its  previous 
limits.  In  Egypt  he  completed  the  task  begun  by  his  father  Esar- 
haddon,  and  established  the  Assyrian  dominion  for  some  years,  not  only 
at  Sais  and  Memphis,  but  likewise  at  Thebes.  In  Asia  Minor  he  sub- 
du«d  large  sections  never  before  invaded  by  any  Assyrian  king,  and 
carried  his  renown  to  the  western  extremity  of  the  Asiatic  continent. 
In  the  north  he  held,  not  only  the  Minni,  but  the  Urarda,  or  true 
Armenians,  among  his  tributaries.  On  the  south  he  formally  annexed 
Susiana  to  the  Assyrian  Empire,  and  on  the  west  he  signally  chas- 
tised the  Arabs. 

Thus  in  the  middle  part  of  Asshur-bani-pal's  brilliant  reign  Assyria 
reached  the  culminating  point  of  her  greatness  —  the  zenith  of  her 
power  and  the  widest  extent  of  her  dominion  —  being  at  this  time  para- 
mount  over  the  portion  of  Western  Asia  from  the  Mediterranean  and 
the  Halys  on  the  west  to  the  Caspian  Sea  and  the  Persian  desert  on 
the  east,  and  from  Arabia  and  the  Persian  Gulf  on  the  south  to  the 
northern  frontier  of  Armenia  and  the  center  of  Cappadocia  on  the 
north.  In  Africa  the  authority  of  Assyria  was  at  this  time  acknowl- 
edged by  Egypt  as  far  south  as  Thebes.  Thus  the  Assyrian  influence 
extended  over  Susiana,  Chaldaea,  Babylonia,  Media,  Matiene,  or  the 
Zagros  range,  Mesopotamia;  portions  of  Armenia,  Cappadocia  and 
Cilicia  ;  Syria,  Phanicia,  Palestine  Idumasa,  part  of  Arabia  and  nearly 
all  of  Egypt.  The  island  of  Cyprus  may  also  have  been  a  dependency. 
But  Persia  proper,  Bactria  and  Sogdiana,  even  Hyrcania,  were  beyond 
the  eastern  limit  of  Assyrian  power,  which  on  the  north  did  not  on 
this  side  extend  farther  than  about  the  vicinity  of  Kasvin,  and  towards 
the  south  was  confined  within  the  Zagros  mountain  range;  while  on 
the  west,  Phrygia,  Lydia,  Lycia,  even  Pamphylia,  were  independent, 
the  arms  of  Assyria  having  never  been,  so  far  as  known,  carried  west- 
ward beyond  Cilicia  or  across  the  river  Halys. 

Asshur-bani-pal  was  also  noted  for  his  love  of  hunting,  especially 
lion-hunting.  On  the  banks  of  streams,  and  in  his  pleasure-galley 
in  mid-stream,  he  roused  the  king  of  beasts  from  his  lair  by  means  of 
hounds  and  beaters,  and  slew  him  with  his  arrows.  In  his  own  park  or 
paradise  large  and  ferocious  beasts,  brought  from  distant  quarters, 
were  placed  in  traps  about  the  grounds,  and  when  he  approached  they 
were  released  from  confinement,  while  he  drove  among  them  in  his 
chariot,  letting  fly  his  arrows  at  each,  seldom  missing  the  marks  at 
which  they  were  directed.  With  two  or  three  attendants  armed  with 
spears,  he  often  encountered  the  terrific  spring  of  the  bolder  beasts, 
who  rushed  wild  with  rage  at  the  royal  marksman  to  tear  him  from 


His 
Extensive 

minions. 


Zenith  of 
Great- 


Asshur- 

Hun?ine8 
Exploits. 


CHALD^EA,   ASSYRIA,   BABYLONIA. 

the  chariot.  On  some  occasions  he  left  the  chariot-board  and  engaged 
in  a  close  struggle  single-handed  with  the  brutes,  without  the  protec- 
tion of  armor,  in  his  usual  dress,  with  only  a  fillet  upon  his  head,  and 
would  pierce  them  through  the  heart  with  sword  or  spear.  He  often 
eneased  in  the  chase  of  the  wild  ass,  and  hunted  the  stag,  the  hind 

O      o  ^5' 

and  the  ibex,  or  wild  goat.  His  love  of  sport  is  also  attested  by  the 
figures  of  his  favorite  hounds  made  in  clay,  and  painted  and  inscribed 
with  their  respective  names. 

His  Asshur-bani-pal  was  the  only  Assyrian  king  who  exhibited  any  taste 

Literary  for  learning  and  literature.  His  predecessors  only  left  to  their  pos- 

and       terity  some  records  of  the  events  of  their  reigns,  inscribed  on  cylinders, 

Royal      tablets,  slabs,  winged  man-headed  bulls  and  lions,  and  a  few  dedica- 

Libraryat  ... 

Nineveh,  tory  inscriptions,  addresses  to  the  deities  whom  they  particularly  wor- 
shiped. Asshur-bani-pal  displayed  far  more  varied  and  all-embracing 
literary  tastes.  He  established  a  Royal  Library,  consisting  of  clay 
tablets,  at  Nineveh,  from  which  the  British  Museum  has  derived  its 
most  valuable  collection.  Under  the  auspices  of  this  monarch  were 
prepared  comparative  vocabularies,  lists  of  deities  and  their  epithets, 
chronological  lists  of  kings  and  eponyms,  records  of  astronomical 
observations,  grammars,  histories  and  various  kinds  of  scientific  works. 
These  treasures  of  learning  were  preserved  in  certain  chambers  of  the 
palace  of  Asshur-bani-pal's  grandfather,  Sennacherib,  where  they  were 
discovered  by  Mr.  La  yard.  There  are  also  a  large  number  of  religious 
documents,  prayers,  invocations,  etc.,  besides  many  juridical  treatises, 
the  fines  to  be  imposed  for  certain  social  offenses;  and  lastly,  there 
are  all  the  contents  of  the  Registry  office,  such  as  deeds  of  sale  and 
barter  referring  to  land,  houses,  and  all  kinds  of  property,  contracts, 
bonds  for  loans,  benefactions  and  other  different  kinds  of  legal  instru- 
ments. Selections  from  the  tablets  have  been  published  in  England, 
being  prepared  for  that  purpose  by  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson  and  others. 
The  clay  tablets  on  which  they  were  inscribed  lay  here  in  such  large 
numbers,  sometimes  whole,  but  generally  in  fragments,  that  they  cov- 
ered the  floors  of  the  chambers  for  more  than  a  foot  high.  Mr.  Layard 
truly  says  that  "  the  documents  thus  discovered  at  Nineveh  probably 
exceed  all  that  has  yet  been  afforded  by  the  monuments  of  Egypt." 
Among  the  interesting  and  valuable  results  which  these  documents  have 
recently  yielded  is  the  chronological  scheme  drawn  from  seven  different 
tablets,  and  known  as  "  the  Assyrian  Canon." 

His  As  a  builder  Asshur-bani-pal  fully  rivaled,  if  he  did  not  surpass, 

Great      ^he  greatest  of  his  predecessors.     His  magnificent  palace  at  Nineveh, 

.Nineveh,  whose  ruins  are  seen  on  the  Koyunjik  mound,  within  a  few  hundred 
yards  of  his  illustrious  grandfather's  splendid  royal  edifice,  was  built 
pn  a  plan  different  from  those  of  former  kings.  The  main  building 


NEW,   OR   LOWER   ASSYRIAN   EMPIRE. 

consisted  of  three  arms  branching  from  a  common  center,  thus  in  its 
general  form  resembling  the  letter  T-  The  central  point  was  entered 
by  a  long  ascending  gallery  lined  with  sculptures,  leading  from  a  gate- 
way, with  rooms  attached,  at  a  corner  of  the  great  court,  first  a  distance 
of  one  hundred  and  ninety  feet  in  a  direction  parallel  to  the  top  bar 
of  the  TJ  and  then  a  distance  of  eighty  feet  in  a  direction  at  right 
angles  to  this,  thus  bringing  it  down  precisely  to  the  central  point 
from  which  the  arms  extended.  The  whole  structure  was  thus  shaped 
like  a  cross,  having  one  arm  extending  from  the  top  towards  the  left 
or  west.  The  principal  apartments  were  in  the  lower  limb  of  the  cross, 
where  a  grand  hall  extended  almost  the  entire  length  of  the  limb,  no 
less  than  one  hundred  and  forty-five  feet  long  by  twenty-eight  and  a 
half  feet  wide,  opening  towards  the  east  on  a  great  court,  paved  prin- 
cipally with  patterned  slabs,  and  communicating  with  a  number  of 
smaller  rooms  towards  the  west,  and  through  these  smaller  rooms  with 
a  second  court,  facing  towards  the  south-west  and  the  south.  The 
next  largest  apartment  was  in  the  right  or  eastern  arm  of  the  cross, 
and  was  a  hall  one  hundred  and  eight  feet  long  by  twenty-four  feet 
broad,  divided  by  a  wide  doorway,  in  which  were  two  pillar-bases,  into 
a  square  ante-chamber  twenty-four  feet  each  way,  and  an  inner  apart- 
ment about  eighty  feet  long.  Neither  arm  of  the  cross  was  thoroughly 
explored,  and  it  is  not  known  whether  they  reached  to  the  extreme 
edge  of  the  eastern  and  western  courts,  dividing  each  into  two,  or 
whether  they  only  extended  into  the  courts  a  certain  distance.  Only 
one  doorway  has  been  discovered  leading  from  the  rest  of  the  palace 
to  the  western  rooms. 

Asshur-bani-pal's  great  palace  was  especially  remarkable  for  its  Its 
beautiful  and  elaborate  ornamentation.  The  courts  were  paved  with  tation. 
large  slabs  covered  with  elegant  patterns.  Some  of  the  doorways  had 
arched  tops  highly  adorned  with  rosettes,  lotuses,  etc.  The  chambers 
and  passages  were  lined  throughout  with  alabaster  slabs,  which  bore 
reliefs  designed  with  remarkable  spirit,  and  executed  with  wonderful 
detail  and  fineness.  Here  were  represented  interesting  hunting 
scenes,  such  as  the  wild  ass,  the  stag,  the  hind,  the  dying  wild  ass,  the 
lion  about  to  spring,  the  wounded  wild  ass  seized  by  hounds,  the 
wounded  lion,  the  lion  biting  a  chariot-wheel,  the  king  shooting  a  lion 
with  his  arrow,  the  lion-hunt  on  a  river,  the  king  killing  lions,  the  lion 
let  out  of  a  trap,  the  hound  held  in  leash,  the  wounded  lioness,  the 
hound  chasing  a  wild  ass,  the  hound  chasing  a  doe,  the  stag  taking 
the  water,  etc.  In  this  part  of  the  palace  were  likewise  illustrated  the 
king's  private  life,  the  trees  and  flowers  of  the  palace  garden,  the 
royal  galley  with  its  two  banks  of  oars,  the  libation  over  four  dead 
lions,  the  temple  with  pillars  resting  on  lions,  and  different  bands  of 


208 


CHALD^EA,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Asshur- 

bani-pal's 

Other 

Edifices 

at 
Nineveh. 


His 
Great- 
ness. 


Ezekiel's 
Descrip- 
tion of 
Assyrian 
Great- 
ness. 


musicians.  A  part  of  the  ascending  passage  was  adorned  with  various 
scenes,  such  as  a  long  train,  with  game,  nets  and  dogs  returning  from 
the  chase.  In  combination  with  all  the  sculptures  just  enumerated 
were  many  scenes  of  sieges  and  battles,  illustrating  Asshur-bani-pal's 
wars.  Reliefs  resembling  these  last  were  discovered  by  Mr.  Layard 
in  certain  chambers  of  Sennacherib's  palace  which  had  been  embel- 
lished by  Asshur-bani-pal.  These  reliefs  were  distinguished  for  the 
large  number  and  small  size  of  the  figures,  for  the  variety  and  spirit 
of  the  attitudes,  and  for  the  careful  finish  of  all  the  minute  details  of 
the  scenes  illustrated  upon  them.  These  give  us  a  good  representa- 
tion of  an  Assyrian  battle,  showing  us  at  one  view  the  battle,  the  flight 
and  pursuit,  the  capture  and  treatment  of  prisoners,  the  gathering  of 
the  spoil  and  the  beheading  of  the  slain.  These  reliefs  are  now  in  the 
British  Museum. 

Asshur-bani-pal,  as  already  observed,  made  additions  to  Sennacher- 
ib's great  palace  at  Nineveh,  and  erected  some  other  buildings  at  the 
same  city,  whose  remains  are  seen  on  the  Nebbi-Yunus  mound,  where 
have  been  discovered  slabs  inscribed  with  his  name  and  an  account  of 
his  wars.  He  also  built  a  temple  to  Ishtar  at  Nineveh,  whose  ruins 
are  seen  on  the  Koyunjik  mound,  and  repaired  a  shrine  of  the  same 
goddess  at  Arbela. 

Asshur-bani-pal,  undoubtedly,  was  one  of  the  greatest  of  Assyria's 
kings.  He  conquered  Egypt  and  Susiana,  held  Babylon  in  quiet  sub- 
jection with  the  exception  of  the  short  revolt  of  Saiil-Mugina,  extended 
his  conquests  far  into  Armenia,  led  his  armies  beyond  the  Taurus,  and 
subjugated  the  barbarous  tribes  of  Asia  Minor.  During  the  intervals 
of  peace  he  employed  himself  in  hunting  the  lion,  and  in  the  erection 
and  embellishment  of  palaces  and  temples. 

In  Asshur-bani-pal's  reign  the  Assyrian  Empire  attained  its  greatest 
dimensions,  Assyrian  art  reached  its  highest  point,  and  the  Assyrian 
dominion  appeared  likely  to  extend  itself  over  the  entire  East.  Then 
Assyria  most  fully  answered  the  forcible  description  given  her  by  the 
Jewish  prophet  Ezekiel  in  these  words :  "  The  Assyrian  was  a  cedar 
in  Lebanon,  with  fair  branches,  and  with  a  shadowing  shroud,  and  of 
high  stature;  and  his  top  was  among  the  thick  boughs.  The  waters 
made  him  great ;  the  deep  set  him  up  on  high  with  her  rivers  running 
about  his  plants,  and  sent  out  her  little  rivers  unto  all  the  trees  of  the 
field.  Therefore  his  height  was  exalted  above  all  the  trees  of  the  field, 
and  his  boughs  were  multiplied,  and  his  branches  became  long  because 
of  the  multitude  of  waters,  when  he  shot  forth.  All  the  fowls  of  the 
heaven  made  their  nests  in  his  boughs,  and  under  his  branches  did  all 
the  beasts  of  the  field  bring  forth  their  young,  and  under  his  shadow 
dwelt  all  great  nations.  Thus  was  he  fair  in  his  greatness,  in  the 


NEW,   OR   LOWER   ASSYRIAN   EMPIRE.  209 

length  of  his  branches ;  for  his  root  was  by  great  waters.  The  cedars 
in  the  garden  of  God  could  not  hide  him ;  the  fir-trees  were  not  like  his 
boughs ;  and  the  chestnut-trees  were  not  like  his  branches ;  nor  any  tree 
in  the  garden  of  God  was  like  unto  him  in  his  beauty." 

With  all  their  advance  in  civilization,  their  progress  in  art  and  the  vAs.shu'" 
.  .  bam-pal's 

practical  inventions,  their  ever-increasing  literature,  the  Assyrians  still    Cruelty. 

retained  the  cruel  and  vindictive  spirit  of  the  most  barbarous  ages  and 
nations  in  conducting  their  wars.  Through  the  whole  period  of  their 
history  their  treatment  of  captured  enemies  continued  to  be  of  the  most 
barbarous  brutality,  which  all  their  advancing  culture  and  their  prog- 
ress in  the  arts  of  civilized  life  did  not  tend  to  mitigate  or  soften. 
Sennacherib  and  Esar-haddon  were  more  merciful  than  their  prede- 
cessors, frequently  sparing  their  captives,  even  when  rebels ;  but  Ass- 
hur-bani-pal  restored  the  old  practice  of  executions,  mutilations  and 
tortures,  and  was  apparently  the  most  cruel  of  all  the  Assyrian  kings. 
In  his  bas-reliefs  we  see  the  unresisting  enemy  pierced  through  with 
the  spear,  the  tongue  torn  from  the  mouth  of  the  captive  accused  of 
blasphemy,  the  rebel  king  beheaded  on  the  battle-field,  and  the  prisoner 
led  to  execution  with  the  head  of  a  friend  or  brother  hung  round  his 
neck.  We  see  the  scourgers  preceding  the  king  as  his  regular  attend- 
ants, with  their  whips  passed  through  their  girdles.  We  observe  liv- 
ing and  dead  men  subjected  to  the  operation  of  flaying.  We  behold 
scenes  in  which  the  executioner  is  represented  as  first  striking  in  the 
face  with  his  fist  those  about  to  be  executed.  Thus  we  have  all  the 
evidence  of  barbarous  cruelty,  such  as  had  a  brutalizing  influence  on 
those  who  inflicted  it,  and  also  on  those  who  witnessed  it.  Nineveh 
was  deservedly  designated  by  the  Jewish  prophet  Nahum  as  "  a  bloody 
city,"  or  "  a  city  of  bloods  " ;  and,  in  the  language  of  the  same 
prophet,  "  the  lion  did  tear  in  pieces  enough  for  his  whelps,  and 
strangled  for  his  lionesses,  and  filled  his  holes  with  prey,  and  his  dens 
with  ravin."  Asshur-bani-pal  gloried  in  his  vindictive  and  unsparing 
cruelties,  transmitting  the  record  of  them  to  posterity  by  representing 
them  in  all  their  horrors  upon  his  palace  walls. 

Asshur-bani-pal's  glory  was  well  known  to  the  Greeks,  who  seem  to    Asshur- 
have  known  more  of  him  than  of  any  other  Assyrian  monarch.     He   identified 
was  doubtless  one  of  the  "  two  kings  called  Sardanapalus,"  celebrated      *s  the 
by  Hellanicus ;  and  he  must  have  been  "  the  warlike  Sardanapalus  "      paius 

of  Callisthenes.     Herodotus  alluded  to  his  great  wealth,  and  Aristoph-      of  *&* 

Greek 
anes   employed   his  name  as  a  byword   for   magnificence.     The   well    writers. 

known  account  given  by  Ctesias  of  the  voluptuous  Assyrian  monarch 
whom  he  called  Sardanapalus,  and  repeated  from  him  by  subsequent 
authors,  does  not  probably  refer  to  Asshur-bani-pal,  but  rather  alludes 
to  his  successor,  the  last  Assyrian  king.  Asshur-bani-pal,  the  van- 

VOL.    1. 14 


210 


CHALD^EA,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Alleged 
Tomb  of 
Sardan- 
apalus  at 
Tarsus. 


Asshur- 

bani-pal 

Identified 

as  the 

Cinnela- 

danus 

of  the 

Canon  of 

Ptolemy. 


quisher  of  Tirhakah,  the  conquerer  of  the  tribes  beyond  the  Taurus, 
the  great  warrior  king  whom  the  wealthy  and  prosperous  Gyges,  King 
of  Lydia,  sought  to  propitiate  by  means  of  rich  presents,  was  so  unlike 
the  mere  voluptuary  who  never  ventured  outside  the  palace  gates,  but 
confined  himself  exclusively  to  the  seraglio,  performing  woman's  work 
and  often  attired  in  female  apparel.  In  one  respect  alone  does  Asshur- 
bani-pal's  character,  as  disclosed  to  us  by  the  monuments,  exhibit  the 
slightest  likeness  to  that  of  the  Sardanapalus  of  Ctesias.  Asshur- 
bani-pal  obtained  for  himself  a  multitude  of  wives.  Always  upon  the 
suppression  of  a  revolt,  he  required  the  conquered  vassal  to  send  to 
Nineveh,  along  with  his  tribute,  one  or  more  of  his  daughters.  These 
princesses  became  inmates  of  his  harem,  or  seraglio. 

If  Asshur-bani-pal  was  the  monarch  called  Sardanapalus  by  the 
Greeks,  he  was  the  founder  of  Tarsus,  in  Cilicia,  and  of  the  neigh- 
boring city  of  Anchialus,  on  the  authority  of  some  classical  writers, 
though  more  reliable  authors  inform  us  that  Tarsus  was  founded  by 
Sennacherib.  It  was  believed  generally  by  the  Greeks  that  the  tomb 
of  Sardanapalus  was  in  this  vicinity.  They  described  this  tomb  as  a 
monument  of  some  height,  having  a  statue  of  the  king  on  the  top, 
representing  him  as  snapping  his  fingers.  The  stone  base  bore  an 
inscription  in  Assyrian  characters,  which  they  interpreted  as  follows: 
"  Sardanapalus,  son  of  Anacyndaraxes,  built  Tarsus  and  Anchialus  in 
one  day.  Do  thou,  O  stranger,  eat,  drink,  and  amuse  thyself;  for  all 
the  rest  of  human  life  is  not  worth  so  much  as  this  " — "  this  "  signify- 
ing the  sound  supposed  to  be  made  by  the  king  with  his  fingers.  Cle- 
archus  said  that  the  inscription  was  simply  the  following:  "  Sardana- 
palus, son  of  Anacyndaraxes,  built  Tarsus  and  Anchiale  in  one  day 
— yet  now  he  is  dead."  Amyntas  said  that  the  tomb  of  Sardanapalus 
was  at  Nineveh,  and  gave  a  very  different  inscription.  Rawlinson 
thinks  that  the  so-called  tomb  of  Sardanapalus  was  really  the  stele  set 
up  by  Sennacherib  on  his  conquest  of  Cilicia  and  founding  of  Tarsus, 
as  related  by  Polyhistor. 

It  has  been  generally  supposed  that  Asshur-bani-pal  died  about  B. 
C.  648  or  647,  in  which  case  his  entire  reign  would  have  been  a  brilliant 
and  prosperous  one ;  but  recent  discoveries  render  it  probable  that  he 
lived  and  reigned  until  B.  C.  626,  and  that  he  was  the  Cinneladanus 
of  the  Canon  of  Ptolemy,  who  occupied  the  Babylonian  throne  from 
B.  C.  647  to  B.  C.  626.  Asshur-bani-pal  distinctly  asserts  that  when 
he  subdued  Babylon  and  put  his  brother  Saiil-Mugina  to  death  he 
became  King  of  Babylon  himself;  and  many  tablets  remain,  dated  by 
his  regnal  years  at  Babylon,  while  the  eponyms  which  can  be  assigned 
to  his  reign  are  at  least  twenty-six  or  twenty-seven.  Polyhistor  dis- 
tinctly says  that  the  successor  of  Sam-mughes,  or  Saiil-Mugina,  on  the 


NEW,    OR    LOWER    ASSYRIAN    EMPIRE. 


Babylonian  throne  was  his  brother,  and  that  he  reigned  twenty-one 
years.  Thus  modern  writers  have  identified  Asshur-bani-pal  with  Cin- 
neladanus,  and  have  concluded  that  he  reigned  in  all  forty-two  years, 
from  B.  C.  668  to  B.  C.  626.  In  this  case  Assyria's  decline  com- 
menced during  the  later  years  of  Asshur-bani-pal's  reign,  so  that  dur- 
ing this  period  she  was  obliged  to  exchange  her  former  aggressive 
course  toward  other  nations  for  a  defensive  attitude  to  maintain  her 
own  continued  existence  against  the  fierce  assaults  of  the  powerful 
neighboring  kingdom  of  Media  and  the  destructive  inroads  of  the  wild 
Scyths  from  the  plains  of  Central  Asia. 

The  centralized  monarchy  established  in  Media  about  B.  C.  640 
rapidly  developed  into  a  great  military  power.  Setting  aside  the  old 
system  of  separate  government  and  village  autonomy,  the  Medes  had 
united  themselves  into  a  single  consolidated  monarchy,  and  about  B. 
C.  634,  when  Asshur-bani-pal  had  reigned  over  Assyria  thirty-four 
years,  these  people  undertook  an  expedition  against  Nineveh,  but  failed 
in  this  first  attack.  Phraortes,  or  the  actual  leader  of  this  army  of 
invasion,  was  thoroughly  defeated  by  the  Assyrians,  his  host  being 
cut  to  pieces,  and  himself  being  among  the  slain.  Nevertheless  the 
fact  that  the  Medes  had  assumed  the  offensive  was  a  potent  cause  for 
alarm,  as  it  illustrated  a  new  state  of  affairs  in  Western  Asia,  fully 
demonstrating  that  Assyria  was  no  longer  the  arbitress  of  the  destinies 
of  nations.  Cyaxares,  the  next  Median  king,  led  an  army  against 
Assyria  about  B.  C.  632,  defeated  the  Assyrians  in  battle,  and  at  once 
laid  siege  to  Nineveh,  but  was  recalled  to  the  defense  of  his  own  coun- 
try against  a  devastating  barbarian  torrent  which  threatened  to  engulf 
the  monarchy  which  had  so  suddenly  grown  up  on  the  eastern  borders 
of  Assyria.  This  new  danger  was  an  irresistible  inroad  of  the  Scyths, 
or  Scythians,  from  Central  Asia,  who  swept  with  destructive  force  over 
both  Media  and  Assyria,  threatening  the  utter  annihilation  of  the 
civilized  nations  of  Western  Asia. 

Herodotus  and  Hippocrates  described  the  Scythians  as  coarse  and 
gross  in  their  habits,  with  large  fleshy  bodies,  loose  joints,  soft  swollen 
bellies  and  scanty  hair.  They  never  washed  themselves,  only  cleansing 
their  persons  with  a  vapor  bath,  their  women  applying  to  their  bodies 
a  paste  which  left  them  glossy  after  it  had  been  removed.  They 
dwelt  in  wagons,  or  in  rude  tents  consisting  of  woolen  felts  arranged 
around  three  bent  sticks  inclined  towards  each  other.  They  subsisted 
on  mares'  milk  and  cheese,  adding  at  times  boiled  beef  and  horse-flesh 
as  a  delicacy.  They  drank  the  blood  of  their  enemies  slain  in  battle. 
They  cut  off  the  heads  of  these  dead  foes,  and  showed  them  to  their 
kings  to  obtain  each  his  respective  share  of  the  spoil.  They  also 
stripped  the  scalps  from  the  skulls  and  suspended  them  on  their  bridle- 


Assyria's 
Decline. 


Median 
Attacks 

on 
Nineveh. 


Scythian 
Inroad. 


Descrip- 
tion of  the 
Scythians 

by 

Herodo- 
tus and 
Hippocra- 
tes. 


CHALD^EA,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Scythian 

Kings  and 

Royal 

Tribe. 


Scythian 
Religion. 


Scythian 
Devasta- 
tion of 
Western 
Asia. 


reins  as  trophies.  Occasionally  they  flayed  the  right  arms  and  hands 
of  their  slain  enemies,  and  used  the  skins  as  coverings  for  their  quivers. 
The  upper  part  of  the  skulls  were  usually  converted  into  drinking- 
cups.  They  spent  the  larger  portion  of  each  day  on  horseback,  at- 
tending on  the  vast  herds  of  cattle  which  they  pastured.  They  used 
the  bow,  their  favorite  weapon,  while  riding,  shooting  their  arrows 
with  unerring  aim.  They  also  each  carried  a  short  spear  or  javelin, 
and  sometimes  also  a  short  sword  or  battle-ax. 

The  Scythian  nation  embraced  many  separate  tribes.  At  the  head 
of  all  was  a  royal  tribe,  corresponding  to  the  "  Golden  Horde  "  of  the 
Mongols,  surpassing  in  numbers  and  bravery  any  of  the  others,  and 
considering  them  all  as  slaves.  The  kings  ruled  by  hereditary  right, 
and  their  families  belonged  to  the  royal  tribe.  Several  kings  fre- 
quently ruled  at  the  same  time,  but  in  great  emergencies  the  supreme 
power  was  always  virtually  vested  in  one  man. 

The  Scythian  religion  embraced  the  worship  of  the  Sun  and  Moon, 
Fire,  Air,  Earth,  Water,  and  a  deity  resembling  the  Greek  Hercules; 
but  the  chief  object  of  adoration  was  the  naked  sword.  The  country 
was  divided  into  sections,  in  each  of  which  was  a  vast  pile  of  brush- 
wood, serving  as  a  temple  to  the  vicinity,  and  having  planted  at  its 
top  an  antique  sword  or  cimeter.  On  a  specified  day  of  each  year  sol- 
emn sacrifices  of  human  beings  and  animals  were  offered  at  these 
shrines,  and  the  warm  blood  of  the  victims  was  poured  upon  the  sword 
at  the  top.  The  human  victims  for  sacrifice,  who  were  captives  taken 
in  war,  were  hewn  to  pieces  at  the  foot  of  the  mound ;  their  limbs  were 
wildly  tossed  into  the  air  by  the  votaries,  and  the  bloody  fragments 
were  left  where  they  had  fallen.  The  Scythians  had  no  priest  caste, 
but  they  believed  in  divination,  the  diviners  comprising  a  distinct  class 
vested  with  important  powers.  When  the  king  was  ill  he  sent  for 
these  diviners,  to  inform  him  of  the  cause  of  his  illness,  which  they 
generally  ascribed  to  the  circumstance  that  an  individual,  whom  they 
named,  had  sworn  falsely  by  the  Royal  Hearth.  Those  accused  of 
this  offense,  if  found  guilty  by  several  bodies  of  diviners,  were  be- 
headed in  punishment,  and  their  property  was  given  to  their  original 
accusers. 

Such  were  the  chief  characteristics  of  the  Scythians,  as  described 
by  Herodotus,  who  tells  us  that  they  were  the  ruling  race  over  a  great 
part  of  the  steppe  region  extending  from  the  river  Ister  (now  Danube) 
and  the  Carpathian  mountains  on  the  west  to  the  eastern  limits  of  the 
region  embraced  by  modern  Turkestan  on  the  east.  Coarse  and  repul- 
sive in  appearance,  ferocious  in  temper,  savage  in  habits,  and  power- 
ful on  account  of  their  vast  numbers  and  a  system  of  warfare  not  easy 
tp  withstand,  and  in  which  they  had  become  expert,  they  could  well 


NEW,   OR   LOWER   ASSYRIAN    EMPIRE. 


213 


strike  consternation  even  into  the  strong  and  warlike  Median  nation. 
Successive  hordes  of  Scyths  swept  through  the  passes  of  the  Caucasus, 
and  spread  ruin  and  devastation  over  the  rich  plains  to  the  south  of 
them.  Onward  they  pushed  in  swarms,  overwhelming  and  irresistible, 
overrunning  Iberia  and  Upper  Media,  reducing  the  rich  cultivated 
country  to  a  howling  wilderness.  They  consumed  the  crops,  carried 
off  or  destroyed  the  herds,  burned  the  villages  and  homesteads,  massa- 
cred or  enslaved  such  of  the  inhabitants  as  did  not  escape  to  the  lofty 
mountain  summits  or  other  strongholds,  sparing  neither  age  nor  sex, 
and  converted  the  whole  country  into  a  scene  of  desolation.  The 
strongly-fortified  towns  which  resisted  the  invading  Scyths,  when  not 
starved  into  submission,  escaped  by  consenting  to  pay  a  tribute. 
Herodotus  informs  us  that  these  barbarians  were  masters  of  all  West- 
ern Asia  from  the  Caucasus  to  the  frontiers  of  Egypt  for  a  period 
of  twenty-eight  years ;  and  their  ravages  spread  over,  not  only  Media, 
but  Armenia,  Assyria,  Mesopotamia,  Syria  and  Palestine. 

The  resistless  tide  of  barbarian  invasion  continued  to  roll  on,  sweep- 
ing from  one  region  to  another,  plundering  and  ravaging  everywhere, 
settling  nowhere.  When  the  savage  hordes  had  reached  Southern  Pal- 
estine, the  course  of  invasion  was  stayed  by  the  Egyptian  king,  Psarn- 
metichus,  who  was  then  engaged  in  the  siege  of  Ashdod.  Upon  hear- 
ing of  the  approach  of  the  Scythian  host  to  Ascalon,  Psammetichus 
sent  an  embassy  to  their  leader  and  bribed  him  by  means  of  valuable 
presents  to  abstain  from  an  invasion  of  Egypt. 

Thenceforth  the  power  of  the  Scythian  invaders  declined,  and  the 
nations  whose  armies  they  had  beaten,  whose  lands  they  had  ravaged 
with  fire  and  sword,  began  to  recover  themselves.  Cyaxares,  King  of 
Media,  and  the  sovereigns  of  other  nations,  drove  them  beyond  their 
dominions,  many  of  the  barbarians  returning  across  the  Caucasus  to 
their  home-land,  large  numbers  being  slain  in  battle  or  massacred,  and 
the  remainder  submitting  and  entering  the  service  of  the  native  Asian 
monarchs.  The  only  vestiges  of  this  destructiye  Scythic  inroad  were 
the  names  of  the  Armenian  province  thenceforth  called  Sacasene  and 
the  Syrian  town  known  thereafter  as  Scythopolis,  a  Greek  name  sig- 
nifying City  of  the  Scyths. 

Weakened  by  the  severity  of  the  Scythian  attack,  Assyria  rapidly 
declined  from  this  time.  The  country  had  been  ravaged  and  depopu- 
lated, the  provinces  had  been  plundered,  many  of  the  great  towns  had 
been  pillaged,  the  palaces  of  the  kings  had  been  burned,  and  much  of 
the  gold  and  silver  had  been  carried  away.  Assyria  was  but  the  shadow 
of  her  former  self  when  the  Scythians  retired  from  the  country.  En- 
feebled and  exhausted,  she  was  ready  to  fall  before  the  arms  of  a  con- 
queror. Babylonia  and  the  other  provinces  of  the  empire,  from  the 


Checked 

in 
Palestine 

by 

Egyptian 
Bribery. 


Scyths 

Driven 

Back 

by  the 

Medes. 


Rapid 
Decline 

and 
Weak- 
ness of 
Assyria. 


CHALD^A,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Asshur- 

emid-ilin, 

or 

Saracus. 


His 
Palace  at 

Calah. 


Median 
and  Susi- 
anian  In- 
vasion of 

Assyria. 


force  of  habit  and  because  they  too  had  been  exhausted  by  the  bar- 
barian inundation,  continued  loyal  to  Assyria  to  the  very  last.  Thus 
Asshur-bani-pal  ruled  over  an  extensive  empire  to  the  end  of  his  life. 

But  Asshur-bani-pal  died  B.  C.  626,  after  a  reign  of  forty-two 
years,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  ASSHUR-EMID-ILIN,  called  Sara- 
cus by  Abydenus.  He  was  the  last  Assyrian  king,  and  reigned  but 
one  year.  We  have  very  few  native  records  of  this  monarch,  and  the 
only  classical  notices  concerning  him  are  the  account  given  of  him 
by  Ctesias,  and  a  few  sentences  in  the  writings  of  Abydenus  and  Poly- 
histor.  A  few  legends  on  bricks  inform  us  that  he  began  the  erection 
of  a  palace  at  Calah,  whose  remains  are  now  seen  at  the  south-east 
part  of  the  Nimrud  mound.  The  contrast  between  this  unfinished  edi- 
fice and  those  grand  royal  residences  of  former  Assyrian  kings  clearly 
exhibited  the  waning  glory  of  the  mighty  monarchy  which  had  swayed 
the  destinies  of  Western  Asia  for  nearly  seven  centuries.  Instead  of 
the  alabaster  bas-reliefs  which  embellished  the  palaces  of  the  prede- 
cessors of  this  last  Assyrian  monarch,  his  edifice  was  adorned  with 
nothing  better  than  coarse  limestone  slabs  without  sculptures  or  in- 
scriptions ;  and  in  place  of  the  enameled  bricks  of  elegant  patterns 
which  ornamented  the  magnificent  structures  of  Sargon,  Sennacherib 
and  Asshur-bani-pal,  we  find  in  this  building  a  simple  plaster  above 
the  slabs.  A  series  of  small  chambers,  none  of  which  was  over  forty- 
five  feet  long,  nor  more  than  twenty-five  feet  in  its  greatest  width,  was 
sufficient  for  the  last  Assyrian  sovereign,  whose  diminished  court  could 
not  now  have  filled  the  spacious  halls  of  his  predecessors.  The  Nimrud 
palace  of  Asshur-emid-ilin,  or  Saracus,  appears  to  have  occupied  less 
than  half  the  space  covered  by  any  other  palace  upon  the  mound.  The 
decline  of  taste  is  clearly  demonstrated  by  its  lack  of  grand  fa£ades 
or  magnificent  gateways,  its  small  and  inconvenient  rooms,  running  in 
suites  which  communicated  with  one  another  without  any  entrances 
from  courts  or  passages,  composed  of  sun-dried  bricks  faced  with  lime- 
stone and  plaster,  and  roughly  paved  with  limestone  flags.  The  mere 
fact  that  Saracus  should  have  entertained  the  thought  of  making  his 
residence  in  a  structure  of  so  poor  and  mean  a  character  is  the  most 
convincing  evidence  of  Assyria's  decadence  and  degeneracy  on  the 
eve  of  her  overthrow.  The  rude  condition  of  this  palace,  and  its 
entire  want  of  elegant  ornamentation,  is  to  be  partially  accounted  for 
by  the  circumstance  that  Saracus  perished,  along  with  his  capital  and 
his  empire,  before  he  had  time  to  complete  the  edifice. 

While  this  building  was  undergoing  erection  Saracus  held  his  court 
at  Nineveh,  where  he  prepared  to  defend  himself  against  the  enemy 
who,  taking  advantage  of  his  powerless  condition,  lost  no  time  in  press- 
ing forward  the  conquest  of  his  rapidly-decaying  and  declining  em- 


NEW,   OR   LOWER    ASSYRIAN    EMPIRE. 


215 


pire.  The  Medes,  favored  by  nature  in  their  land  of  rocky  hills  and 
inaccessible  mountain  chains,  did  not  suffer  as  much  from  the  ravages 
of  the  Scyths  as  did  the  Assyrians  in  their  defenseless  plains ;  and  they 
were  the  first  of  the  nations  exposed  to  the  barbarian  inundation  to 
recover  from  its  destructive  effects.  Having  repulsed  the  Scyths  and 
expelled  them  from  his  country,  Cyaxares,  the  warlike  monarch  who 
founded  the  great  Median  Empire,  led  a  large  army  into  Assyria  from 
the  east;  while  his  allies,  the  Susianians,  entered  the  country  in  force 
from  the  south. 

To  defend  his  country  against  this  double  invasion,  Saracus,  the 
last  of  the  great  dynasty  founded  by  Sargon,  divided  his  forces,  re- 
taining a  portion  under  his  own  command  to  oppose  the  Medes,  while 
he  assigned  the  other  part  to  his  general,  Nabopolassar,  whom  he 
ordered  to  Babylon  to  check  the  advance  of  the  Susianians.  But 
Nabopolassar,  seeing  his  own  opportunity  in  his  sovereign's  perilous 
dilemma,  turned  traitor,  and,  instead  of  fighting  loyally  against  the 
foes  of  Assyria,  he  entered  into  secret  negotiations  with  Cyaxares, 
agreeing  to  an  alliance  with  him  against  the  Assyrians,  and  obtaining 
the  daughter  of  the  Median  king  as  a  bride  for  his  eldest  son,  Nebu- 
chadnezzar. Uniting  their  forces,  Cyaxares  and  Nabopolassar  jointly 
attacked  Nineveh;  whereupon  Saracus,  or  Asshur-emid-ilin,  unable  to 
defend  his  capital,  and  overcome  by  despair,  set  fire  to  his  palace  and 
perished  in  the  flames.  The  once-proud  city  of  Nineveh  was  plun- 
dered and  destroyed  by  the  conquering  Medes  and  Babylonians  (B.  C. 
625). 

The  account  of  the  downfall  of  Assyria  as  related  by  Ctesias  is  so 
fanciful  that  it  is  utterly  discarded  by  the  best  modern  historians. 
He  says  that  the  Medes  were  accompanied  by  the  Persians,  and  the 
Babylonians  by  some  Arab  allies,  and  that  the  assailing  army  num- 
bered four  hundred  thousand  men.  In  the  first  engagement  the  As- 
syrians were  victorious,  and  the  attacking  army  was  driven  to  the 
Zagros  mountains.  A  second  and  a  third  attack  likewise  failed.  The 
tide  of  battle  turned  in  favor  of  the  assailants  upon  the  arrival  of  a 
strong  reenforcement  from  Bactria,  when  a  night  attack  upon  the 
Assyrian  camp  was  crowned  with  complete  success.  The  Assyrian 
king  sought  refuge  in  his  capital,  leaving  his  army  under  the  com- 
mand of  his  brother-in-law,  Salaemenes,  who  was  soon  defeated  and 
slain.  The  siege  of  Nineveh  then  began,  and  lasted  over  two  years 
without  any  result.  An  unusually  wet  season  in  the  third  year  of  the 
siege  caused  an  extraordinary  rise  in  the  Tigris,  destroying  more  than 
two  miles  of  the  city  wall ;  whereupon  the  king,  who  had  been  told  by 
an  oracle  to  fear  nothing  until  the  river  became  his  enemy,  yielding 
to  despair,  made  a  funeral  pile  of  all  his  richest  furniture,  and  burnt 


Nabopo- 
lassar's 
Treach- 
ery. 


Self-im- 
molation 

of 

Asshur- 
emid-elin 

and 

Destruc- 
tion of 
Nineveh. 


Account 
of  this 

Event  by 
Ctesias. 


216 


CHALD^EA,   ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


End  of  the 
Assyrian 
Empire. 


Assyria's 
Duration. 


Assyria's 

Ex- 
tinction. 


himself  with  his  concubines  and  his  eunuchs  in  his  palace.  The  Medes 
and  their  allies  thereupon  entering  the  city  on  the  side  laid  open  by 
the  flood,  plundered  and  destroyed  it.  This  description  of  the  last 
siege  of  Nineveh,  as  related  by  Ctesias,  has  been  transmitted  to  pos- 
terity through  the  writings  of  Diodorus  Siculus,  and,  like  most  of  his 
statements,  is  unworthy  of  credit. 

Thus  fell  the  mighty  Assyrian  Empire,  not  so  much  from  any  in- 
herent weakness  as  by  an  unfortunate  combination  of  circumstances — 
the  invasion  of  the  powerful  and  warlike  Medes  when  the  empire  had 
been  exhausted  by  the  terrible  inroad  of  the  Scyths,  and  the  treason 
and  perfidy  of  its  leading  general.  With  the  destruction  of  the  em- 
pire the  Assyrian  race  sank  into  oblivion,  and  Assyrian  history  ceased 
forever.  Assyria  upon  its  downfall  was  divided  between  its  conquer- 
ors, the  portion  east  of  the  Tigris  falling  to  Media,  and  the  part  west 
of  the  river  being  absorbed  by  Babylonia. 

The  independent  kingdom  of  Assyria  lasted  about  a  thousand  years, 
but  the  empire  covered  a  little  less  than  the  last  seven  centuries  of  this 
period,  from  B.  C.  1300  to  B.  C.  625,  when  it  fell  before  the  arms  of 
the  Medes,  or  more  properly  only  about  five  centuries,  from  B.  C.  1150. 
The  power  and  extent  of  the  empire  culminated  during  the  brilliant 
reign  of  Asshur-bani-pal,  just  before  its  rapid  decline  and  sudden 
fall. 

By  successive  changes  in  this  part  of  Asia,  the  country  has  con- 
tinually changed  masters,  being  successively  under  the  Medo-Persian, 
Grasco-Macedonian,  Syrian,  Parthian,  New  Persian,  Saracen,  Seljuk, 
Mongol,  and  for  the  last  five  centuries  under  the  Ottoman  Turkish, 
dominion.  The  country  now  forms  part  of  the  Turkish  province  of 
Kurdistan,  and  the  half-savage  modern  Kurds  are  the  direct  descend- 
ants of  the  renowned  ancient  Assyrians.  The  palaces  in  which  Sar- 
gon,  Sennacherib,  Esar-haddon  and  Asshur-bani-pal  dwelt  in  luxury 
and  splendor,  after  lying  imbedded  beneath  the  mounds  and  ruins  of 
twenty-five  centuries,  have  in  our  day,  thanks  to  the  enterprise  and 
diligence  of  patient  explorers  like  Layard  and  Botta,  been  brought 
out  of  their  long  concealment  to  the  light  of  the  modern  world;  and 
many  wonderful  sculptures  from  the  great  cities  of  ancient  Assyria 
now  adorn  the  museums  of  London,  Paris  and  Berlin.  The  great  cities 
of  Asshur,  Calah,  Dur-Sargina  and  Nineveh,  with  their  magnificent 
royal  residences,  their  busy  shops  and  factories  teeming  with  the  prod- 
ucts of  industry,  their  crowded  thoroughfares  in  which  victorious  war- 
rior-kings were  greeted  with  the  applause  of  their  subjects  and  the 
triumphant  shouts  of  their  stalwart  and  invincible  soldiery,  now  exist 
only  in  the  records  and  memory  of  their  past  glory  and  greatness,  and 
in  the  ruins  on  the  mounds  of  Kileh-Sherghat,  Nimrud,  Khorsabad 


NEW,   OR   LOWER    ASSYRIAN    EMPIRE. 


217 


and  Koyunjik,  only  tenanted  by  the  wandering  Kurds  watching  their 
herds  and  flocks,  and  resounding  with  the  jackal's  howl  after  the  sun 
in  its  daily  course  has  sunk  to  rest  beneath  the  western  horizon. 


KINGS    OF    ASSYRIA. 


B.  C.     B.  C. 


Bel-sumili-kapi 


[rba-vul 


Asshur-iddin-akhi 


About  1400  to  1420. 
"  1420  to  1400. 
"  1400  to  1380. 


1380  to  1360. 
1360  to  1340. 
1340  to  1320. 
1320  to  1300. 


1300  to  1280. 


1230  to  1210. 


1210  to  1190 
1190  to  11 70 
1170  to  1150 
1150  to  1130 
1130  to  1110 
1110  to  1090. 
1090  to  1070. 


Asshur-bil-nisi-su 

Buzur-Asshur  (successor) 
Asshur-upallit  (successor) 


Bel-lush  (his  son) 

Pud-il  (his  son) 

Vul-lush  I.  (his  son) 

Shalmaneser  I.  (his  son), 


Tiglathi-Nin  I.  (his  son)  . 


Bel-kudur-uzur 


Called  the  founder  of  the  kingdom 
on  a  genealogical  tablet. 

Mentioned  by  Tiglath-Pileser  I.  as 
a  former  king.  A  very  archaic 
tablet  in  the  British  Museum  is 
dated  in  his  reign. 

Mentioned  by  Tiglath-Pileser  I.  as 
a  former  king. 


Nin-pala-zira  (successor) . 
Asshur-dayan  I.  (his  son)  . 
Mutaggil-Nebo   (his  son) . 
Asshur-ris-ilim   (his  son) . 
Tiglath-Pileser  I.  (his  son)  _ 
Asshur-bil-kala  (his  son)  . . . 
Shamas-Vul  I.  (his  brother) 


Asshur-mazur 


Mentioned  on  a  synchronistic' 
tablet,  which  connects  them 
with  the  time  of  Purna- 
puriyas,  the  Chaldsean  king. 
Asshur-upallit  mentioned  on 
Kileh-Sherghat  bricks. 

Names  and  succession  found 
on  Kileh-Sherghat  bricks, 
vases,  etc.  Shalmaneser  I. 
mentioned  also  on  a  genea- 
logical slab  and  in  the  stand- 
ard inscription  of  Nimrud.  . 

Mentioned  on  a  genealogical 
tablet.  Called  "  the  con- 
queror of  Babylon,"  and 
placed  by  Sennacherib  600 
years  before  his  own  capture 
of  Babylonia  in  B.  C.  703. 

Mentioned  on  the  synchronistic 
tablet  as  the  predecessor  of 
Nin-pala-zira. 

Names  and  relationship  given 
in  cylinder  of  Tiglath- 
Pileser  I. 

I  Mentioned  on  the  synchron- 
istic tablet  above  spoken 

J  of.  Date  of  Tiglath-Pileser 
I.  fixed  by  the  Bavian  in- 
scription. Dates  of  the 
other  kings  calculated 
from  his  at  twenty  years 
to  a  generation. 

Mentioned  in  an  inscription  of 
Shalmaneser  II. 


218 


CHALD^EA,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


About  930  to  911. 

"  911  to  889. 

"  889  to  883. 

"  883  to  858. 

"  858  to  823. 

"  823  to  810. 

"  810  to  781. 

"  781  to  771. 

"  771  to  753. 

"  753  to  745. 


745  to  727. 
727  to  722. 
722  to  705. 
705  to  681. 
681  to  668. 
668  to  626. 
626  to  625. 


Asshur-dayan  II 

Vul-lush  II.  (his  son) 

Tiglathi-Nin  II.  (his  son) 
Asshur-izir-pal  (his  son). 
Shalmaneser  II.  (his  son)  . 
Shamas-Vul  II.  (his  son)  . 
Vul-lush  III.  (his  son)  . . . 

Shalmaneser  III 

Asshur-dayan  III 

Asshur-lush  . 


Tiglath-Pileser  II 

Shalmaneser  IV 

Sargon  

Sennacherib  (his  son) .... 
Esar-haddon  (his  son).... 
Asshur-bani-pal  (his  son) 
Asshur-emid-ilin  (his  son) 


The  kings  from  Asshur-dayan 
II.  to  Vul-lush  III.  are 
proved  to  have  been  in  direct 
succession  by  the  Kileh- 
Sherghat  and  Nimrud  monu- 
ments. The  last  nine  reigns 
are  given  in  the  Assyrian 
Canon.  The  Canon  is  the 
sole  authority  for  the  last 
three.  The  dates  of  the 
whole  series  are  determined 
from  the  Canon  of  Ptolemy 
by  calculating  back  from 
B.  C.  680,  his  date  for  the 
accession  of  Esar-haddon 
(Asaridanus).  They  might 
also  be  fixed  from  the  year 
of  the  great  eclipse. 

The  years  of  these  kings, 
from  Esar-haddon  up- 
wards, are  taken  from  the 
Assyrian  Canon.  The 
dates  accord  strictly  with 
the  Canon  of  Ptolemy.  The 
last  year  of  Asshur-bani- 
pal  is  to  some  extent  con- 
jectural. 


Rawlin- 
son's 
State- 
ment. 


SECTION  VII.— ASSYRIAN  CIVILIZATION. 

SAYS  Professor  Rawlinson :  "  The  nature  of  the  dominion  estab- 
lished by  the  great  Mesopotamian  monarchy  over  the  countries  in- 
cluded within  the  limits  above  indicated,  will  perhaps  be  best  under- 
stood if  we  compare  it  with  the  empire  of  Solomon.  Solomon  '  reigned 
over  all  the  kingdoms  from  the  river  (Euphrates)  unto  the  land  of 
the  Philistines  and  unto  the  border  of  Egypt:  they  brought  presents 
and  served  Solomon  all  the  days  of  his  life.'  The  first  and  most  strik- 
ing feature  of  the  earliest  empires  is  that  they  are  a  mere  congeries 
of  kingdoms ;  the  countries  over  which  the  dominant  state  acquires  an 
influence,  not  only  retain  their  distinct  individuality,  as  is  the  case  in 
some  modern  empires,  but  remain  in  all  respects  such  as  they  were 
before,  with  the  simple  addition  of  certain  obligations  contracted  to- 
wards the  paramount  authority.  They  keep  their  old  laws,  their  old 
religion,  their  line  of  kings,  their  law  of  succession,  their  whole  inter- 
nal organization  and  machinery ;  they  only  acknowledge  an  external 
suzerainty  which  binds  them  to  the  performance  of  certain  duties  to- 
wards the  Head  of  the  empire.  These  duties,  as  understood  in  the 
earliest  times,  may  be  summed  up  in  the  two  words  *  homage '  and 
*  tribute  ';  the  subject  kings  *  serve  '  and  *  bring  presents.'  They  are 
bound  to  acts  of  submission;  must  attend  the  court  of  their  suzerain 


' 


ASSYRIAN    CIVILIZATION.  219 

when  summoned,  unless  they  have  a  reasonable  excuse;  must  there 
salute  him  as  a  superior,  and  otherwise  acknowledge  his  rank ;  above 
all,  they  must  pay  him  regularly  the  fixed  tribute  which  has  been  im- 
posed upon  them  at  the  time  of  their  submission  or  subjection,  the  un- 
authorized withholding  of  which  is  open  and  avowed  rebellion.  Fi- 
nally, they  must  allow  his  troops  free  passage  through  their  dominions, 
and  must  oppose  any  attempt  at  invasion  by  way  of  their  country  on 
the  part  of  his  enemies.  Such  are  the  earliest  and  most  essential  obli- 
gations on  the  part  of  the  subject  states  in  an  empire  of  the  primitive 
type,  like  that  of  Assyria ;  and  these  obligations,  with  the  correspond- 
ing one  on  the  part  of  the  dominant  power  of  the  protection  of  its 
dependents  against  foreign  foes,  appear  to  have  constituted  the  sole 
links  which  joined  together  in  one  the  heterogeneous  materials  of  which 
that  empire  consisted.  *  *  * 

"  Such,  in  its  broad  and  general  outlines,  was  the  empire  of  the  The 
Assyrians.  It  embodied  the  earliest,  simplest  and  most  crude  concep-  c0ntin- 
tion  which  the  human  mind  forms  of  a  widely  extended  dominion.  It  ued. 
was  a  '  kingdom-empire,'  like  the  empires  of  Solomon,  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, of  Chedorlaomer,  and  probably  of  Cyaxares,  and  is  the  best 
specimen  of  its  class,  being  the  largest,  the  longest  in  duration,  and 
the  best  known  of  all  such  governments  that  has  existed.  It  exhibits 
in  a  marked  way  both  the  strength  and  weakness  of  this  class  of  mon- 
archies— their  strength  in  the  extraordinary  magnificence,  grandeur, 
wealth,  and  refinement  of  the  capital;  their  weakness  in  the  impover- 
ishment, the  exhaustion,  and  the  consequent  disaffection  of  the  subject 
states.  Ever  falling  to  pieces,  it  was  perpetually  reconstructed  by 
the  genius  and  prowess  of  a  long  succession  of  warrior  princes,  sec- 
onded by  the  skill  and  bravery  of  the  people.  Fortunate  in  having 
for  a  long  time  no  very  powerful  neighbors,  it  found  little  difficulty 
in  extending  itself  throughout  regions  divided  and  subdivided  among 
hundreds  of  petty  chiefs,  incapable  of  union,  and  singly  quite  unable 
to  contend  with  the  forces  of  a  large  and  populous  country.  Fre- 
quently endangered  by  revolts,  yet  always  triumphing  over  them,  it 
maintained  itself  for  five  centuries,  gradually  advancing  its  influence, 
and  was  only  overthrown  after  a  fierce  struggle  by  a  new  kingdom 
formed  upon  its  borders,  which,  taking  advantage  of  a  time  of  exhaus- 
tion, and  leagued  with  the  most  powerful  of  the  subject  states,  was 
enabled  to  accomplish  the  destruction  of  the  long-dominant  people." 

As  in  the  case  of  the  Chaldaeans,  it  was  formerly  a  subject  of  dispute     Semitic 
as  to  what  branch  of  the  Caucasian  race  the  Assyrians  belonged ;  but  of  £f £a_ 
it  has  now  been  definitely  determined  by  the  evidence  of  language,  as    Syrians, 
well  as  the  testimony  of  the  Hebrew  accounts,  that  the  Chaldaeans  were 
mainly  a  Hamitic,  or  Cushite  race,  fused  slightly  with  Semitic,  Aryan 
1—17 


£20  CHALD^EA,   ASSYRIA,   BABYLONIA. 

and  Turanian  elements ;  while  the  Assyrians  are  found  to  have  been 
pure  Semites,  and  therefore  a  kindred  people  with  the  Hebrews,  or 
Israelites,  the  Arabs,  the  Syrians,  or  Aramaeans,  and  the  Phoenicians. 
The  Mosaic  genealogies  connected  Asshur  with  Aram,  Eber  and  Jok- 
tan,  the  progenitors  respectively  of  the  Aramaeans,  or  Syrians,  the 
Israelites,  or  Hebrews,  and  the  Northern,  or  Joktanian,  Arabs.  The 
language,  physical  types  and  moral  characteristics  of  these  races  were 
well  known,  as  they  all  belonged  to  a  single  family — to  what  ethnolo- 
gists and  philologists  call  the  Semitic  family.  The  manners  and  cus- 
toms, particularly  the  religious  customs,  of  the  Assyrians  were  iden- 
tical with  those  of  the  Syrians  and  Phoenicians.  The  modern  Chal- 
daeans  of  Kurdistan,  who  consider  themselves  descendants  of  the  ancient 
inhabitants  of  the  neighboring  Assyria,  still  speak  a  Semitic  dialect 
— a  fact  discovered  and  reported  by  the  elder  Niebuhr,  and  confirmed 
by  Mr.  Ainsworth.  These  three  circumstances  are  sufficient  evidence 
that  the  Assyrians  were  Semites,  being  closely  allied  in  race  with  the 
Syrians,  the  Later  Babylonians,  the  Phoenicians,  the  Israelites  and  the 
Northern  Arabs ;  and  recent  linguistic  discoveries  have  fully  confirmed 
this  view.  We  now  have  in  the  engraved  slabs,  the  clay  tablets,  the 
cylinders  and  the  bricks,  excavated  from  the  ruins  of  the  great  As- 
syrian cities,  abundant  documentary  testimony  of  the  character  of  the 
Assyrian  language,  and  of  the  ethnic  character  of  the  people.  All 
who  have  examined  this  evidence  have  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that 
the  language  of  these  records  is  Semitic,  and  that  it  is  closely  con- 
nected with  the  Hebrew,  the  Syriac,  the  Later  Babylonian  and  the 
Arabic. 

Physical  '^ne  Pnysicftl  characteristics  of  the  Assyrians,  as  disclosed  to  us  by 
Charac-  their  sculptures,  also  confirm  this  view.  Their  sculptured  effigies  bear 
the  most  striking  resemblance  to  the  Jewish  physiognomy.  The  low 
and  straight  forehead,  the  full  brow,  the  large  and  almond-shaped  eye, 
the  aquiline  nose  a  little  coarse  at  the  end  and  unduly  depressed,  the 
strong  and  firm  mouth  with  over-thick  lips,  the  well-formed  chin — best 
observed  in  the  representation  of  eunuchs — the  thick  hair  and  heavy 
beard,  both  of  black  color — all  these,  as  exhibited  by  the  Assyrian 
sculptures,  display  a  remarkable  likeness  to  the  striking  peculiarities 
of  the  Jewish  head  and  face,  and  also  bear  somewhat  of  a  resemblance 
to  the  physiognomy  of  the  Arabs,  and  to  all  branches  of  the  Semitic 
race.  These  traits  are  now  common  to  the  Jew,  the  Arab  and  the 
Kurd,  while  in  ancient  times  they  characterized  the  Assyrians,  Syr- 
ians, Phoenicians,  Hebrews  and  the  minor  Semitic  nations.  The  Egyp- 
tian sculptures  of  Amunoph  III.,  as  representing  the  Patena,  or 
people  of  Bashan ;  the  Asuru,  or  Assyrians ;  and  the  Karukamishi,  or 
people  of  Carchemish,  show  us  the  same  type  of  physiognomy,  which 


TYPICAL  ASSYRIAN   HEAD 

From  a  Figure  found  at  Nineveh 


ASSYRIAN    CIVILIZATION.  221 

the  Egyptians  regarded  as  common  to  all  the  nations  of  Western  Asia. 
In  shape  the  Assyrians  are  most  truly  represented  by  their  descendants, 
the  modern  Chaldaeans  of  Kurdistan.  Like  the  modern  Kurd,  the  As- 
syrian was  robust  and  stalwart  in  bodily  frame,  with  broad  shoulders 
and  large  limbs.  The  monuments  of  no  other  people  show  us  so 
strong  a  race  in  muscular  development  as  the  ancient  Assyrian.  The 
large  brawny  limbs  of  this  resolute  and  sturdy  people,  whom  Rawlin- 
son  fitly  calls  "  the  Romans  of  Asia,"  indicate  a  physical  power  be- 
longing to  no  other  nation. 

The  mental  and  moral  characteristics  of  the  Jews  and  the  Assyrians  Religious 
also  bore  the  closest  analogy.  In  each  the  religious  sentiment  was 
peculiarly  predominant.  The  inscriptions  of  Assyrian  kings  begin 
and  end  with  praises,  invocations  and  prayers  to  their  chief  deities. 
All  the  king's  victories  and  conquests,  his  successful  feats  in  the  chase 
of  the  lion  and  the  wild  bull,  are  ascribed  to  the  protection  and  favor 
of  the  gods.  Thus  Tiglath-Pileser  I.  says  in  his  cylinder :  "  Under 
the  auspices  of  Ninip,  my  guardian  deity,  I  killed  four  wild  bulls 
strong  and  fierce  " ;  and  "  Under  the  auspices  of  Ninip,  one  hundred 
and  twenty  lions  fell  before  me."  One  of  Asshur-bani-pal's  sculp- 
tured inscriptions  says :  "  I,  Asshur-bani-pal,  king  of  the  nations,  king 
of  Assyria,  in  my  great  courage  fighting  on  foot  with  a  lion,  terrible 
for  his  size,  seized  him  by  the  ear,  and  in  the  name  of  Asshur  and 
Ishtar,  Goddess  of  War,  with  the  spear  that  was  in  my  hand  I  ter- 
minated his  life."  Wherever  the  Assyrian  monarch  led  his  conquer- 
ing hosts,  he  "  set  up  the  emblems  of  Asshur,"  or  of  "  the  great  gods  " ; 
and  compelled  the  vanquished  to  render  them  homage.  The  most 
precious  of  the  spoils  of  conquest  were  dedicated  as  thank-offerings 
in  the  temples.  The  temples  themselves  were  adorned,  repaired,  beau- 
tified, enlarged  and  multiplied  numerically  by  most  of  the  Assyrian 
sovereigns.  The  kings  worshiped  in  these  temples  in  person  and  of- 
fered sacrifices.  They  embellished  their  palaces  with  religious  figures, 
such  as  emblems  of  chief  deities  and  illustrations  of  acts  of  adoration, 
as  well  as  with  representations  of  their  victories  in  war  and  their  ex- 
ploits in  hunting.  Their  signets,  and  those  of  the  Assyrians  gener- 
ally, are  religious  in  character.  In  every  respect  religion  occupies 
an  important  place  among  the  Assyrians,  who  fight  more  for  the  honor 
of  their  gods  than  for  their  king,  and  aspire  as  much  toward  extend- 
ing their  religion  as  their  dominion. 

As  in  the  Jewish  religion,  we  perceive  in  the  Assyrian  system  a    Material- 
sensuousness  contending  with  a  higher  and  purer  element,  which  in  this  1S3e^Cyen 
case  reigns  uncontrolled,  giving  a  gross,  material  and  voluptuous  char- 
acter to  its  religion.     This  practical  people  cared  very  little  for  the 
spiritual  and  the  ideal,  and,  not  being  satisfied  with  symbols,  made 


222 


CHALD/EA,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Warlike 
Skill  and 
Personal 
Courage. 


Ferocity 
and 
Occa- 
sional 
Harsh- 


idols,  or  images,  of  wood  and  stone  to  represent  their  gods ;  and  their 
intricate  mythological  system,  with  its  priestly  hierarchy,  its  mag- 
nificent ceremonial  and  lascivious  ceremonies,  resembled  that  of  Egypt, 
and  thus  differed  from  that  of  the  Jews. 

The  Hebrew  Scriptures  represent  the  Assyrians  as  "  a  fierce  people." 
Their  personal  valor  and  courage,  and  their  skill  and  superiority  over 
all  other  nations  in  the  art  of  war,  gave  them  their  victories  over  their 
less-civilized  neighbors  and  enemies.  The  valor  and  courage  of  the 
Assyrians,  like  that  of  the  Romans,  was  kept  up  by  constant  wars,  and 
by  the  cultivation  of  their  manly  characteristics,  developed  in  the  pur- 
suit and  slaying  of  ferocious  beasts.  The  lion  and  other  fierce  and 
dangerous  animals  infested  Assyria ;  and,  unlike  other  Asiatics,  who 
tremble  with  fear  before  the  great  beasts  of  prey  and  avoid  an  en- 
counter with  them  by  flight  if  possible,  the  ancient  Assyrians  hunted 
the  strongest  and  fiercest  animals,  provoked  them  to  a  collision  and 
engaged  with  them  in  close  combat.  The  spirit  of  Nimrod,  "  the 
mighty  hunter  before  the  Lord,"  which  animated  his  own  people,  the 
Chaldaeans,  inspired  to  even  a  greater  extent  their  northern  neighbors, 
the  Assyrians,  according  to  the  evidence  afforded  us  by  the  monuments. 
The  Assyrians,  from  the  sovereign  to  the  lowest  subject,  delighted 
especially  in  hunting  the  lion  and  the  wild  bull,  noted  for  their  strength 
and  courage,  and  to  attack  either  of  which  was  to  incur  extreme  peril. 

The  Assyrians  were  not  only  a  brave  and  hardy  people,  but  also 
very  fierce  and  ferocious  in  their  nature.  In  the  language  of  the 
Hebrew  prophet  Isaiah,  the  Assyrian  nation  was  "  a  mighty  and  a 
strong  one,  which,  as  a  tempest  of  hail  and  a  destroying  storm,  as  a 
flood  of  mighty  waters  overflowing,  cast  down  to  the  earth  with  the 
hand."  The  Israelitish  prophet  Nahum  could  well  describe  Nineveh 
as  "  a  bloody  city,"  or  "  a  city  of  bloods."  In  this  fierce  disposition 
the  Assyrians  were  not  unlike  other  conquering  races,  few  of  which 
have  been  tender-hearted,  or  inclined  to  spare  a  vanquished  foe.  Car- 
nage, ruin  and  desolation  marked  the  course  of  an  Assyrian  army,  and 
excited  feelings  of  fear  and  animosity  among  their  enemies.  Assyrian 
fierceness  was,  however,  often  tempered  with  clemency.  The  slain  foe 
was  mutilated  not  by  way  of  insult,  but  as  a  proof  of  the  slayer's 
prowess,  perhaps  to  obtain  a  reward  given  for  heads,  as  has  frequently 
been  the  case  with  Orientals.  Scribes  are  often  represented  on  the 
sculptures  taking  an  account  of  the  heads  cut  off.  Otherwise  the 
Assyrians  had  no  actually  cruel  customs.  They  readily  gave  quarter 
when  asked  for,  and  chose  rather  to  take  prisoners  than  to  massacre. 
They  were  very  terrible  foes  to  encounter  in  battle  and  to  withstand 
in  an  attack,  but  in  the  hour  of  triumph  they  forgave  and  spared  the 
fallen  foe.  The  exceptions  to  this  general  clemency  were  in  the  cases 


LIONS  OF  OLD  ASSYRIA 
Upper  Section :   Sculptured  Lion  in  Later  Style 
Lower  Section :    Sculptured  Lion  in  Earliest  Style 


ASSYRIAN    CIVILIZATION.  ggg 

of  the  subjugation  of  rebellious  towns,  wherein  the  most  guilty 
of  the  rebellion  were  impaled  on  stakes,  and  in  several  instances  pris- 
oners are  represented  on  the  sculptures  as  being  led  before  the  king 
by  a  rope  fastened  to  a  ring  passing  through  the  under  lip,  while  occa- 
sionally one  appears  as  being  flayed  with  a  knife.  But  usually  cap- 
tives were  either  released,  or  transferred,  without  unnecessary  suffer- 
ing, from  their  own  country  to  another  part  of  the  Assyrian  Empire; 
there  being  some  exceptional  cases,  where  the  captives  were  urged  on- 
wards by  blows,  like  tired  cattle,  and  where  they  were  heavily  fettered. 
Captive  women  were  never  manacled,  but  were  treated  with  real  tender- 
ness, being  frequently  permitted  to  ride  on  mules  or  in  carts. 

The  greatest  vice  of  the  Assyrians  seems  to  have  been  their  treach-  Treach- 
ery. Says  the  Hebrew  prophet  Isaiah :  "  Woe  to  thee  that  spoilest, 
though  thou  wast  not  spoiled,  and  dealest  treacherously,  though  they 
dealt  not  treacherously  with  thee ! "  The  prophet  Nahum  declared 
Nineveh  to  be  "  full  of  lies  and  robbery."  Isaiah  further  declared,  in 
alluding  to  the  Assyrian  king :  "  He  hath  broken  the  covenant,  he 
hath  despised  thfe  cities,  he  regardeth  no  man."  But  the  denunciations 
of  the  Assyrians  for  cruelty  or  treachery  by  Jewish  prophets  and 
writers  would  carry  more  weight  if  the  Hebrew  history  did  not  abound 
with  tales  of  barbarous  cruelty,  bloodshed,  treachery  and  crime. 

Another  failing  in  the  character  of  the  Assyrians  was  their  pride,  Pride, 
which  is  especially  denounced  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  where  it  is 
expressly  declared  to  have  called  forth  the  Divine  judgments  upon  the 
nation.  Says  the  prophet  Ezekiel :  "  Because  thou  hast  lifted  up 
thyself  in  height,  and  he  hath  shot  his  top  among  the  thick  boughs, 
and  his  heart  is  lifted  up  in  his  height ;  I  have  therefore  delivered  him 
into  the  hand  of  the  mighty  one  of  the  heathen;  he  shall  surely  deal 
with  him;  I  have  driven  him  out  for  his  wickedness."  The  prophets 
Isaiah,  Ezekiel  and  Zephaniah  alike  denounce  Assyrian  pride.  This 
characteristic  everywhere  pervades  the  Assyrian  inscriptions.  The 
Assyrians  considered  themselves  greatly  superior  to  all  other  nations. 
They  alone  were  favored  by  the  gods.  They  only  were  really  wise 
or  actually  brave.  The  armed  hosts  of  their  foes  were  chased  before 
them  like  chaff  before  the  wind.  Their  enemies  were  afraid  to  fight, 
or  were  at  once  defeated  with  ease.  They  carried  their  arms  in  tri- 
umph wherever  they  pleased,  and  never  acknowledged  that  they  had 
experienced  a  reverse.  The  only  merit  that  they  admitted  other  people 
to  possess  was  some  skill  in  the  mechanical  and  mimetic  arts,  and  this 
acknowledgment  was  only  tacitly  made  by  employing  foreign  artists 
to  ornament  their  edifices.  Luxury 

The  Greek  accounts  as  given  by  Ctesias,  and  transmitted  therefrom     gand 
to  the  Romans  and  through  them  to  the  moderns,  represented  luxurious      ality. 


224  CHALD^A,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 

living  and  sensuality  as  the  predominant  vice  of  Assyrian  monarchs, 
from  Ninyas  to  Sardanapalus,  from  the  origin  to  the  overthrow  of  the 
Assyrian  Empire.  The  entire  race  of  Assyrian  sovereigns  are  thus 
represented  as  voluptuaries,  who  carried  into  practice  the  principle 
that  human  happiness  consisted  in  freedom  from  all  cares  or  troubles, 
and  in  unrestrained  indulgence  in  every  kind  of  sensual  pleasure.  This 
account  is  directly  contradicted  by  the  authentic  records  which  the 
Assyrian  monuments  and  sculptures  furnish  us  concerning  the  warlike 
character  and  manly  pursuits  of  so  large  a  number  of  the  monarchs. 
Nevertheless  in  so  flourishing  a  monarchy  as  Assyria  luxury  did  grad- 
ually advance;  and  when  the  Empire  fell  before  the  combined  attack 
of  two  powerful  neighboring  kingdoms,  it  had  lost  much  of  its  old- 
time  vigor.  There  is  only  one  passage  in  the  Old  Testament  ascribing 
luxury  and  sensuality  as  a  cause  of  the  downfall  of  Assyria.  The 
usual  faults  for  which  Jewish  prophets  generally  denounced  the  As- 
syrians are  their  violence,  treachery  and  pride.  When  .Nineveh  re- 
pented in  Jonah's  time  it  was  by  each  man  having  "  turned  from  his 
evil  way  and  from  the  violence  which  was  in  their  hands."  When 
Nahum  announced  the  final  overthrow,  it  was  "  the  bloody  city,  full  of 
lies  and  robbery."  In  the  figurative  language  of  the  prophet,  the  lion 
was  selected  as  the  symbol  of  Assyria,  even  at  the  close  of  her  history. 
Thus  Assyria  is  still  represented  as  "  the  lion  that  did  tear  in  pieces 
enough  for  his  whelps,  and  strangled  for  his  lionesses,  and  filled  his 
holes  with  prey,  and  his  dens  with  ravin."  The  chosen  national  em- 
blem of  Assyria  is  thus  accepted  as  the  true  type  of  her  people;  and 
blood,  ravin  and  robbery  are  the  Assyrian  qualities  in  the  view  of  the 
Jewish  prophet. 

Mental  The  Assyrians  were  among  the  foremost  Asiatic  nations  in  mental 
power.  Though  they  derived  the  elements  of  their  civilization  orig- 
inally from  their  mother  country,  Chaldaea,  they  excelled  their  instruc- 
tors in  many  particulars,  and  rendered  the  old  arts  more  valuable  by 
continual  improvements.  Their  language,  arts  and  government  attest 
their  native  genius,  and  are  advances  upon  what  had  previously  pre- 
vailed in  Mesopotamia  and  in  the  world.  The  Assyrians  were  the 
superiors  of  the  highly-lauded  Egyptians  in  many  essential  particu- 
lars. The  progressive  character  and  spirit  of  Assyrian  art  contrasts 
most  strongly  with  the  stiff,  lifeless  and  fixed  conventionalism  of  the 
Egyptian.  The  Assyrian  language  and  alphabet  are  an  advance  upon 
the  Egyptian.  The  Assyrian  religion  is  more  earnest  and  less  de- 
graded than  that  of  the  Nile  land.  The  courage  and  military  genius 
of  the  Assyrians  were  also  superior  to  the  same  qualities  in  the  Egyp- 
tians, who  were  on  the  whole  an  un warlike  nation.  But  in  the  grand- 
eur and  durability  of  her  architecture  Egypt  surpassed  Assyria.  The 


ASSYRIAN    CIVILIZATION. 


225 


Physical 
Vigor. 


Assyrian  palaces,  with  all  their  splendor,  were  inferior  to  the  colossal 
structures  of  Thebes.  Neither  Assyria,  Rome  or  any  other  nation, 
has  rivaled  Egypt  in  the  vastness  and  the  solemn  grandeur  of  its  edi- 
fices. But  with  this  solitary  exception,  the  great  kingdom  of  Africa 
was  decidedly  the  inferior  of  her  powerful  Asiatic  rival,  which  was 
truly  described  by  the  Hebrew  prophet  Ezekiel  as  "  a  cedar  in  Leb- 
anon, exalted  above  all  the  trees  of  the  field — fair  in  his  greatness,  in 
the  length  of  his  branches — so  that  all  the  trees  of  Eden,  that  were 
in  the  garden  of  God,  envied  him — and  not  one  was  like  unto  him  in 
his  beauty." 

The  material  and  physical  vigor  of  the  Assyrians  outran  their  intel- 
lectual progress  and  development.  The  elements  of  their  science  and 
literature,  their  cuneiform  writing,  their  architecture  and  other  arts, 
they  brought  with  them  from  their  mother  country,  Chaldaea.  Even 
the  Hamitic,  or  Cushite,  dialect  of  the  Chaldees  became  the  language 
of  the  Assyrian  priests  and  scholars,  and  in  this  dead  language  were 
preserved  the  records  of  the  old  Chaldsean  kingdom  and  the  early  his- 
tory of  the  Assyrian  monarchy.  It  was  not  until  the  culminating 
period  of  Assyrian  greatness  and  glory,  during  the  brilliant  reign  of 
Asshur-bani-pal,  just  before  the  rapid  decay  and  decline  of  Assyrian 
power,  that  the  works  written  in  the  Chaldee  classic  tongue  were  trans- 
lated into  the  Assyrian  vernacular.  The  Assyrian  race  manifested 
its  greatness  in  art  and  manufactures,  and  not  in  science  and  litera- 
ture. 

As  we  have  before  noticed,  the  same  system  of  cuneiform,  or  wedge-  inscribed 
shaped,  characters  used  in  Chaldagan  writing  was  employed  in  the  writ- 
ten language  of  Assyria.  The  mounds  of  Assyria  and  Mesopotamia 
have  yielded  a  mass  of  documents  in  the  Assyrian  language.  Some  of 
these  are  stone  slabs  bearing  long  historic  inscriptions  with  which  the 
walls  of  palaces  are  paneled,  and  which  are  wonderfully  preserved  to 
this  day.  Other  memorials  are  the  hollow  cylinders,  or,  more  properly, 
hexagonal  or  octagonal  prisms,  made  of  extremely  thin  terra-cotta, 
and  which  the  Assyrian  kings  inscribed  with  the  records  of  their  actions 
and  with  many  religious  invocations,  and  deposited  at  the  corners  of 
temples.  These  cylinders  are  from  a  half  yard  to  a  yard  high,  and 
the  inscriptions  covering  the  outside  face  are  arranged  in  columns, 
one  of  which  occupies  each  side,  reading  from  top  to  bottom.  This 
writing  was  so  wonderfully  fine  as  to  often  require  a  good  magnifying 
glass  to  decipher  it.  The  cylinder  of  Tiglath-Pileser  I.  contains 
thirty  lines  in  a  space  of  six  inches,  or  five  lines  to  an  inch,  which  is 
almost  as  close  as  the  type  of  this  book.  The  cylinder  of  Asshur- 
bani-pal  has  six  lines  to  the  inch.  The  durability  of  these  cylinders 
is  attested  by  the  fact  that  many  of  them  still  remain,  and  give  us 

VOL.    1. 15 


Slabs 
and  Cyl- 
inders. 


226 


CHALD.EA,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Inscribed 
Sculp- 
tures, 
Bricks 
and  Clay 
Tablets. 


Black 
Obelisk  of 

Shalma- 
neser  II. 


Slab  and 
Tablet 
Inscrip- 
tions. 


Rawlin- 
son  on 

Assyrian 

Bas- 
reliefs. 


most  of  our  knowledge  of  the  annals  of  this  great  people,  as  recorded 
by  themselves  twenty-five  and  thirty  centuries  ago. 

Besides  slabs  and  cylinders,  the  written  records  of  Assyria  were  in- 
scribed upon  the  stone  bulls  and  lions,  stone  obelisks,  engraved  seals, 
bricks  and  clay  tablets.  Both  the  sun-dried  and  kiln-burned  bricks 
are  stamped  with  legends,  to  preserve  them  from  the  two  great  dangers 
of  flood  and  fire,  to  which  Assyria  was  subject.  Fire  would  only 
harden  the  sun-dried  bricks,  and  water  could  not  affect  those  burned 
in  kilns.  The  clay  tablets  are  numerous,  and  of  sizes  varying  from 
nine  by  six  and  a  half  inches,  to  an  inch  and  a  half  by  an  inch.  In 
some  cases  they  are  wholly  covered  with  writing,  while  in  other  in- 
stances a  portion  of  their  surface  is  stamped  with  seals,  mythological 
emblems,  etc.  Thousands  of  these  tablets  have  been  found,  many  being 
historical,  many  mythological,  some  linguistic,  some  geographic,  some 
astronomical.  Such  are  the  treasures  of  Assyrian  literature. 

The  few  stone  obelisks  are  in  a  fragmentary  condition,  the  only  per- 
fect one  being  the  one  in  black  basalt,  discovered  by  Mr.  Layard  at 
Nimrud,  and  which  has  now  been  for  many  years  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum. This  monument  is  about  seven  feet  high,  two  feet  broad  at  the 
base,  tapering  slightly  towards  the  top,  which  is  crowned  with  three 
low  steps,  or  gradines.  The  inscription  occupies  the  upper  and  lower 
portions  of  each  side,  and  is  carried  along  the  spaces  between  the  bas- 
reliefs,  consisting  of  two  hundred  and  ten  clearly  cut  lines.  It  is  one 
of  the  most  important  of  the  remaining  Assyrian  memorials,  and  con- 
tains a  record  of  the  victories  won  and  the  tribute  brought  to  Shal- 
maneser  II.,  who  set  it  up. 

The  many  inscribed  lions  and  bulls  guarding  the  portals  of  palaces 
are  raised  in  a  bold  relief  on  alabaster  slabs ;  the  inscriptions  gener- 
ally covering  only  the  portions  of  the  slabs  not  occupied  by  the  animal, 
and  usually  giving  a  detailed  account  of  some  important  campaign. 
Clay  tablets  were  used  in  ordinary  business  affairs,  and  for  literary 
and  scientific  writings ;  and,  when  wanted  for  instruction  or  evidence, 
were  carefully  baked.  That  they  exist  to  this  day,  in  as  legible  a  con- 
dition, with  letters  as  clear  and  sharp  as  any  Greek  or  Roman  legend 
on  stone,  marble  or  metal,  proves  that  the  best  clay,  properly  baked, 
is  as  durable  as  stone  or  metal. 

Says  Professor  Rawlinson :  "  Of  all  the  Assyrian  works  of  art  which 
have  come  down  to  us,  by  far  the  most  important  are  the  bas-reliefs. 
It  is  here  especially,  if  not  solely,  that  we  can  trace  progress  in  style ; 
and  it  is  here  alone  that  we  see  the  real  artistic  genius  of  the  people. 
What  sculpture  in  its  full  form,  or  in  the  slightly  modified  form  of 
very  high  relief,  was  to  the  Greeks,  what  painting  has  been  to  modern 
European  nations  since  the  time  of  Cimabue,  that  low  relief  was  to  the 


ASSYRIAN    CIVILIZATION. 


227 


Bas- 
reliefs. 


Assyrians — the  practical  mode  in  which  artistic  power  found  vent 
among  them.  They  used  it  for  almost  every  purpose  to  which  mimetic 
art  is  applicable;  to  express  their  religious  feelings  and  ideas,  to 
glorify  their  kings,  to  hand  down  to  posterity  the  nation's  history 
and  its  deeds  of  prowess,  to  depict  home  scenes  and  domestic  occupa- 
tions, to  represent  landscape  and  architecture,  to  imitate  animal  and 
vegetable  forms,  even  to  illustrate  the  mechanical  methods  which  they 
employed  in  the  construction  of  those  vast  architectural  works  of  which 
the  reliefs  were  the  principal  ornamentation.  It  is  not  too  much  to 
say  that  we  know  the  Assyrians,  not  merely  artistically,  but  histor- 
ically and  ethnologically,  chiefly  through  their  bas-reliefs,  which  seem 
to  represent  to  us  almost  the  entire  life  of  the  people." 

The  bas-reliefs  were  sculptured  on  stone  slabs,  which  were  set  in  the  Classes  of 
lower  part  of  the  walls  of  the  palaces  which  they  adorned.  These 
reliefs  were  of  five  different  classes:  1.  War  scenes,  such  as  battles, 
sieges,  devastations  of  an  enemy's  country,  naval  expeditions  and  tri- 
umphant returns  from  foreign  wars,  with  the  trophies  and  fruits  of 
victory ;  2.  Religious  scenes,  mythical  and  real ;  3.  Processions,  mostly 
of  tribute-bearers,  carrying  the  products  of  their  respective  countries 
to  the  Assyrian  king;  4.  Hunting  and  sporting  scenes,  such  as  the 
chase  of  ferocious  animals,  and  of  animals  hunted  for  food,  the  spread- 
ing of  nets,  the  shooting  of  birds,  etc. ;  5.  Scenes  of  every-day  life, 
such  as  the  transportation  and  erection  of  colossal  bulls,  and  land- 
scapes, temples,  interiors,  gardens,  etc. 

Assyrian  mimetic  art  is  in  the  form  of  statues,  bas-reliefs,  metal 
castings,  ivory  carvings,  clay  statuettes,  brick  enamelings,  and  intag- 
lios on  stones  and  gems.  Assyrian  statues  are  rare  and  imperfect. 
The  best  specimens  are  two  royal  statues  now  in  the  British  Museum; 
also  two  statues  of  the  god  Nebo,  one  of  the  goddess  Ishtar,  and  one 
of  Sargon — all  of  which  are  now  also  in  the  British  Museum.  The 
Assyrian  clay  statuettes,  mostly  images  of  deities,  possess  even  less 
artistic  excellence  than  the  statues.  Small  animal  figures,  mostly  dogs 
and  ducks,  in  terra-cotta,  have  likewise  been  discovered. 

In  painting,  as  well  as  in  sculpture,  the  Assyrians  made  great  prog-  Painting 
ress,  and  many  of  the  drawings  on  the  prominent  sculptures  are  ele- 
gant. Everything  indicates  a  taste  for  display.  In  architectural 
designs,  and  in  the  grouping  of  flowers  and  animals  for  the  purposes 
of  embellishment,  great  richness  and  variety  of  fancy  are  exhibited. 
The  dresses  of  the  kings  display  gorgeous  robes,  elegantly  and  pro- 
fusely embroidered,  fringed  and  tasseled.  Sandals  made  of  wood  or 
leather  were  used  for  the  feet,  while  caps  and  tiaras  of  silk  were  worn 
on  the  head.  Many  articles  of  furniture  likewise  displayed  great  ele- 
gance. Tables  constructed  of  wood  or  metal,  inlaid  with  ivory  and 


Assyrian 

Mimetic 

Art. 


228 


CHALD^EA,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Architec- 
ture and 
Sculp- 
ture. 


Assyrian 
Palaces. 


Royal 
Scenes. 


having  legs  gracefully  carved,  were  in  the  dwellings  of  the  wealthy. 
Elegant  baskets  seem  to  have  been  in  use.  Ornaments,  such  as  tassels, 
fringes,  necklaces,  armlets,  bracelets,  anklets,  ear-rings  of  various 
forms  and  elegant  workmanship,  clasps,  etc.,  were  worn  in  profusion. 
There  were  drinking-cups  of  gold  and  silver.  Everywhere  was  mani- 
fested a  love  of  elaborate  and  gaudy  decoration. 

The  excavations  within  the  last  half  century  at  Khorsabad,  Koyun- 
jik,  Nimrud  and  Kileh-Sherghat  have  revealed  to  us  the  fact  that  truly 
did  Assyria  rank  next  to  Egypt  in  monumental  grandeur.  The  re- 
mains of  Assyrian  art  and  architecture  exhumed  from  these  mounds 
give  a  very  considerable  knowledge  of  their  stupendous  palaces  in  the 
days  of  their  splendor  and  glory.  We  can,  by  looking  at  the  remains 
of  the  sculptured  and  painted  walls  of  their  vast  edifices,  read  the  rec- 
ords of  Assyria — its  battles,  its  sieges,  its  conquests  and  its  triumphs. 
We  see  around  the  colossal  images  of  the  Assyrian  gods,  by  which,  in 
monstrous  yet  striking  emblems,  the  Assyrians  endeavored  to  express 
their  conceptions  of  divinity.  We  are  here  introduced  to  the  sem- 
blances of  monarchs  who  flourished  from  twenty-five  to  thiry  centuries 
ago.  We  see  these  in  their  costumes  of  state,  in  all  the  pomp  and  cir- 
cumstance of  war,  in  the  pursuit  of  the  chase,  and  in  the  solemn  cere- 
monials of  religion.  We  are  also  enabled  from  these  sculptures  to 
inform  ourselves  of  many  of  the  domestic  customs  of  the  Assyrians, 
of  their  household  furniture,  their  mechanical  tools  and  implements, 
their  methods  of  agriculture,  the  crops  of  the  husbandman,  and  in  fact, 
the  occupations  and  amusements  of  this  renowned  Asiatic  people  in 
the  days  of  their  preeminence. 

Layard  and  Botta,  the  fortunate  discoverers  of  these  famous  mink, 
have  given  us  glowing  descriptions  of  the  massive  dimensions,  the  mag- 
nificence and  grandeur,  of  the  Assyrian  palaces,  whose  ruins  they  un- 
covered from  the  Khorsabad,  Koyunjik  and  Nimrud  mounds.  The 
stranger  who  visited  these  splendid  palaces  in  the  flourishing  periods 
of  the  Assyrian  Empire  was  ushered  in  through  the  portal,  guarded 
by  colossal  winged  man-headed  lions  and  bulls  of  white  alabaster.  In 
the  first  hall  he  saw  all  around  him  the  sculptured  records  of  the  empire 
— battles,  sieges,  triumphs,  hunting  exploits,  religious  ceremonies — 
all  portrayed  on  the  palace  walls,  sculptured  in  alabaster,  and  painted 
in  gorgeous  colors.  Under  each  picture  he  saw  engraved,  in  charac- 
ters filled  up  with  bright  copper,  inscriptions  descriptive  of  the  scenes 
thus  illustrated. 

Above  the  sculptures  he  observed  paintings  representing  other  events 
— the  Assyrian  king,  attended  by  his  eunuchs  and  his  warriors,  receiv- 
ing his  captives,  negotiating  alliances  with  other  monarchs,  or  per- 
forming some  sacred  duty;  these  representations  being  surrounded  by 


ASSYRIAN    CIVILIZATION. 


colored  borders,  of  elaborate  and  elegant  designs.  He  saw  the  em- 
blematic tree,  also  winged  man-headed  bulls  and  lions,  occupying  con- 
spicuous places  among  the  ornaments.  At  the  upper  end  of  the  hall 
was  a  gigantic  figure  of  the  king,  in  adoration  before  Asshur,  "  the 
Great  Lord,"  or  receiving  from  his  eunuch  the  holy  cup.  He  was 
attended  by  warriors  bearing  his  arms,  and  by  the  priests,  or  presid- 
ing divinities.  His  robes  and  those  of  his  followers  were  adorned  with 
groups  of  figures,  animals  and  flowers,  all  painted  with  brilliant  colors. 

The  visitor  trod  upon  alabaster  slabs,  each  bearing  an  inscription, 
recording  the  titles,  the  genealogy  and  the  achievements  of  the  Great 
King.  Several  doorways,  guarded  by  gigantic  winged  man-headed 
lions  and  bulls,  or  by  the  figures  of  guardian  deities,  led  into  other 
apartments,  which  likewise  opened  into  more  remote  halls.  In  each 
of  these  apartments  and  halls  were  sculptures.  On  the  walls  of  some 
were  processions  of  colossal  figures — armed  men  and  eunuchs  follow- 
ing the  king,  or  warriors  laden  with  spoil,  conducting  captives  or 
bearing  presents  and  offerings  to  the  gods.  On  the  walls  of  others 
were  portrayed  the  winged  priests,  or  presiding  divinities,  standing 
before  the  sacred  trees. 

The  ceilings  above  the  visitor  were  divided  into  square  compart- 
ments, painted  with  flowers  or  with  figures  of  animals.  Some  were  in- 
laid with  ivory,  each  compartment  being  surrounded  with  elegant  bor- 
ders and  mouldings.  The  beams,  as  well  as  the  sides  of  the  chambers, 
may  have  been  gilded,  or  even  plated  with  gold  and  silver;  and  the 
most  highly  prized  species  of  wood,  prominent  among  which  was  the 
cedar,  were  used  in  the  wood-work.  The  palaces  were  lighted  from 
the  roofs,  which  were  of  wood,  the  light  being  admitted  through  square 
openings  into  the  ceilings  of  the  chambers.  A  pleasing  light  was  thus 
cast  over  the  sculptured  walls,  and  gave  a  majestic  expression  to  the 
human  features  of  the  colossal  figures  guarding  the  entrances.  The 
azure  hue  of  the  eastern  sky  was  seen  through  these  apertures,  which 
were  enclosed  in  frames,  whereon  were  painted  in  vivid  colors  the 
winged  circle,  in  the  midst  of  elegant  ornaments  and  the  graceful  fig- 
ures of  ideal  animals. 

These  vast  edifices  were  the  great  Assyrian  monuments,  upon  whose 
walls  were  represented  in  sculpture,  or  inscribed  in  cuneiform  charac- 
ters, the  chronicles  of  the  Assyrian  Empire.  The  visitor  who  entered 
these  splendid  structures  might  here  read  the  annals  and  learn  all  about 
the  glory  and  triumphs  of  this  great  people.  These  memorials  served 
also  to  constantly  remind  those  who  assembled  within  the  palace  on 
festive  occasions,  or  for  celebrating  religious  ceremonies,  of  the  deeds 
and  prowess  of  their  ancestors,  and  the  power  and  majesty  of  the 
Assyrian  gods. 


Royal 
Inscrip- 
tions  and 
Sculp- 
tures. 


Ornamen- 
tation. 


Historic 
Chron- 
icles. 


230 


CHALD^A,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Plan  of 

the 
Palaces. 


Brick  and 

Stone 
Remains. 


Ruins  and 
Mounds 

of 
Nineveh. 


Koyunjik 
Mound. 


The  palaces  seem  to  have  been  one  story,  but  of  vast  extent.  Under 
the  floor  of  each  room  was  a  drain,  consisting  of  a  clay  pipe.  No 
traces  of  the  dwellings  of  the  common  people  remain.  The  sculptures 
inform  us  that  the  Assyrians  used  the  arch  in  building.  Assyrian 
pillars  in  the  temples  and  palaces  rested  on  circular  or  globular  bases, 
or  on  animal  figures.  The  temple  towers,  or  ziggurats,  were  erected 
in  the  form  of  steps  or  stages  around  their  four  sides,  thus  gradually 
becoming  narrower  at  the  top.  Such  were  the  royal  residences  of 
Assyria — each  of  which  was  at  the  same  time  a  temple  and  a  palace — 
the  dwelling  of  him  who  was  at  once  the  sovereign,  the  priest  and  the 
prophet  of  his  people. 

The  Assyrian  ruins  exhibit  no  tombs  like  those  of  Egypt,  whose 
painted  interiors,  protected  from  the  ravages  of  the  elements,  have 
transmitted  to  succeeding  ages  the  thoughts,  feelings  and  opinions  of 
their  ancient  builders.  All  that  remain  of  Assyrian  architecture  are 
scattered  bricks,  usually  marked  with  inscriptions  and  with  sculptures 
and  reliefs.  The  most  interesting  and  valuable  are  the  stone  slabs 
facing  the  inside  walls  of  the  temples.  The  Assyrian  structures  were 
generally  built  of  brick,  which  was  preferred  as  a  building  material, 
although  stone  was  abundant  in  the  country.  The  temples  constructed 
of  stone  have  partly  remained,  though  buried  in  heaps  of  rubbish  for 
twenty-five  centuries.  Marble,  alabaster  and  basalt  were  used  in  the 
palaces.  The  ancient  Assyrian  edifices,  like  the  palaces,  had  no  win- 
dows, but  were  lighted  through  their  wooden  roofs. 

So  thoroughly  was  Nineveh  destroyed  that  when  Xenophon,  about 
two  hundred  and  twenty-five  years  afterward,  passed  over  its  ruins  the 
very  name  of  the  place  was  unknown  to  the  inhabitants ;  and  in  the 
time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  nearly  a  century  later,  the  city  was 
forgotten;  so  that  for  over  two  thousand  years  the  very  site  of  the 
renowned  capital  and  metropolis  of  Assyria  was  unknown.  But  the 
wonderful  discoveries  of  Layard  in  recent  times  have  identified  its 
locality  as  the  ruins  opposite  the  present  town  of  Mosul,  on  the  Tigris, 
consisting  of  two  principal  mounds,  known  respectively  by  their  pres- 
ent Arab  names  of  Nebbi-Yunus  and  Koyunjik. 

The  Koyunjik  mound  is  the  larger  and  is  located  about  nine  hun- 
dred yards,  or  a  little  over  half  a  mile,  north-west  of  the  Nebbi-Yunus. 
Its  shape  is  an  irregular  oval,  elongated  to  a  point  towards  the  north- 
east, in  the  line  of  its  greater  axis.  The  surface  is  almost  flat,  and 
the  sides  slope  at  a  steep  angle,  being  furrowed  with  many  ravines, 
worn  in  the  soft  material  by  the  rains  of  twenty-five  centuries.  The 
mound  rises  to  its  greatest  height  above  the  plain  towards  the  south- 
eastern extremity,  there  overhanging  the  small  stream  of  the  Khosr-su, 
where  the  height  is  about  ninety-five  feet.  The  mound  covers  about 


ASSYRIAN    CIVILIZATION. 


231 


a  hun^rerf  acres.  On  this  artificial  mound  the  Assyrian  palaces  and 
temples,  now  buried  beneath  heaps  of  earth  and  rubbish,  were  erected 
in  ancient  times. 

The  Nebbi-Yunus  mound  is  almost  triangular  at  its  base  and  covers 
about  forty  acres.  It  is  more  elevated,  and  its  sides  are  more  precipi- 
tous than  Koyunjik,  particularly  on  the  west,  where  it  abutted  upon 
the  wall  of  the  city.  The  surface  is  mostly  flat,  but  is  divided  into 
an  eastern  and  a  western  portion  by  a  deep  ravine  running  nearly  from 
north  to  south.  The  supposed  tomb  of  Jonah  occupies  a  conspicuous 
place  on  the  northern  edge  of  the  western  portion  of  the  mound,  and 
the  cottages  of  Kurds  and  Turkomans  are  grouped  about  it.  The 
eastern  portion  forms  a  general  Mohammedan  burial-ground  for  the 
surrounding  country. 

Palaces  and  temples  were  raised  on  these  two  great  mounds,  both 
of  which  are  in  the  same  line  and  abutted  on  the  western  wall  of  the 
city.  On  this  side  Nineveh  was  thirteen  thousand  six  hundred  feet, 
or  over  two  and  a  half  miles  long,  and  in  ancient  times  overhung  the 
Tigris,  which  is  now  a  mile  farther  to  the  west,  leaving  a  plain  of 
that  width  between  the  river  and  the  old  rampart  of  the  city.  This 
rampart  followed  the  natural  course  of  the  river  bank.  At  its  north- 
ern extremity  the  western  wall  approaches  the  present  course  of  the 
Tigris,  and  is  there  connected,  at  exactly  right  angles,  with  the  north- 
ern or  north-western  rampart,  which  runs  in  a  direct  line  to  the  north- 
eastern angle  of  the  city  and  measures  exactly  seven  thousand  feet. 
At  one  third  of  the  distance  from  the  north-west  angle  this  wall  is 
broken  by  a  road,  and  adjoining  this  is  a  remarkable  mound,  which 
covers  one  of  the  principal  gates  of  the  city.  At  its  other  end  the 
western  wall  forms  an  obtuse  angle  with  the  southern  wall,  which  im- 
pends over  a  deep  ravine  formed  by  a  winter  torrent,  thus  running  in 
a  direct  line  about  a  thousand  yards,  when  it  is  joined  with  the  eastern 
wall,  with  which  it  forms  a  slightly  acute  angle.  The  eastern  wall, 
the  longest  and  most  irregular  of  the  ramparts,  skirts  the  edge  of  a 
rocky  ridge,  there  rising  above  the  level  of  the  plain  and  presenting 
a  slightly  convex  course  to  the  north-east.  This  wall  is  sixteen  thou- 
sand feet,  or  over  three  miles  long,  and  is  divided  a  little  north  of  the 
middle  into  two  portions,  by  the  Khosr-su,  which  flows  through  the 
city  ruins,  running  across  the  low  plains  to  the  Tigris. 

Thus  the  entire  enceinte  of  Nineveh  forms  an  irregular  trapezium. 
Its  greatest  width,  which  is  in  its  northern  portion,  is  four-ninths  of 
its  length,  thus  giving  the  city  an  oblong  shape,  as  Diodorus  described 
it,  though  he  greatly  exaggerated  its  size.  The  circuit  of  the  walls 
is  not  quite  eight  miles,  instead  of  being  over  fifty ;  and  the  area  thus 
embraced  is  eighteen  hundred  English  acres,  and  not  one  hundred  and 


Nebbi- 
Yunus 
Mound. 


Walls  of 
Nineveh. 


Shape, 
Size  and 
Popula- 
tion of 
Nineveh 


232 


CHALD^EA,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Size  of 
theWalls. 


Masonry 

and  Gates 

of  the 

Walls. 


Rivers 

Khosr-su 
and  Tigris 

and 
Canals. 


twelve  thousand.  It  has  been  estimated  that  populous  Oriental  cities 
have  a  hundred  inhabitants  to  the  acre,  or  one  to  fifty  square  yards, 
thus  giving  ancient  Nineveh  one  hundred  and  seventy-five  thousand 
souls,  a  population  exceeding  that  of  any  city  of  Western  Asia  at 
the  present  time. 

Diodorus  described  the  wall  with  which  Ninus  surrounded  his  capital 
as  being  one  hundred  feet  high,  and  so  wide  that  three  chariots  could 
be  driven  abreast  along  the  top.  Xenophon,  who  passed  near  the  ruins 
while  conducting  the  Retreat  of  the  Ten  Thousand,  says  that  the  walls 
were  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  high  and  fifty  feet  broad.  The  great- 
est height  at  present  appears  to  be  forty-six  feet ;  but  the  great  amount 
of  rubbish  at  the  foot  of  the  walls,  and  their  ruined  condition,  have 
led  Mr.  Layard  to  say:  "  The  remains  still  existing  of  these  fortifica- 
tions almost  confirm  the  statement  of  Diodorus  Siculus,  that  the  walls 
were  a  hundred  feet  high."  The  walls  in  their  present  condition  are 
from  one  hundred  to  two  hundred  feet  broad. 

Xenophon  says  that  the  walls  up  to  fifty  feet  were  constructed  of  a 
fossiliferous  limestone,  smoothed  and  polished  on  the  outside,  and  that 
above  that  height  sun-dried  bricks  were  used.  The  stone  masonry,  in 
Mr.  Layard's  opinion,  was  ornamented  along  its  top  by  a  continuous 
series  of  battlements,  or  gradines,  of  the  same  material,  and  it  is  prob- 
able that  a  like  ornamentation  crowned  the  upper  brick  structure. 
The  wall  was  pierced  at  irregular  intervals  by  gates,  above  which  rose 
high  towers ;  and  lower  towers  occurred  in  the  parts  of  the  wall  be- 
tween the  different  gates.  A  gate  in  the  north-western  rampart, 
cleared  by  excavation,  seems  to  have  consisted  of  three  gateways,  the 
inner  and  outer  being  ornamented  with  colossal  winged  man-headed 
bulls  and  other  figures,  while  the  middle  one  was  only  paneled  with 
alabaster  slabs.  Between  the  gateways  were  two  large  chambers,  sev- 
enty feet  long  by  twenty-three  feet  wide,  being  thus  capable  of  holding 
a  considerable  body  of  soldiers.  The  chambers  and  gateways  are 
believed  to  have  been  arched  over,  similar  to  the  castles'  gates  on  the 
bas-reliefs.  The  gates  themselves  have  entirely  ceased  to  exist,  but 
the  rubbish  which  filled  both  the  chambers  and  the  passages  contained 
so  much  charcoal  as  to  give  rise  to  the  belief  that  they  were  con- 
structed of  bronze.  The  ground  within  the  gateway  was  paved  with 
large  limestone  slabs,  which  still  bear  the  marks  of  chariot- wheels. 

Besides  its  ramparts,  Nineveh  was  protected  on  all  sides  by  water 
barriers,  the  west  and  south  being  defended  by  natural  streams,  and 
the  north  and  east  by  artificial  canals  beginning  at  the  Khosr-su. 
Skirting  the  northern  and  eastern  walls  was  a  deep  moat,  into  which 
the  waters  of  the  Khosr-su  were  turned  by  occupying  its  natural  chan- 
nel with  a  strong  dam,  carried  across  it  in  the  line  of  the  eastern 


ASSYRIAN    CIVILIZATION. 


233 


wall,  and  at  the  point  where  the  stream  now  flows  into  the  enclosure. 
On  coining  in  contact  with  this  obstruction,  of  which  some  vestiges 
yet  remain,  the  waters  separated  into  two  parts,  one  flowing  to  the 
south-east  into  the  Tigris  by  the  ravine  immediately  to  the  south  of 
the  city,  which  is  a  natural  water-course,  and  the  other  turning  at  an 
acute  angle  to  the  north-west,  washing  the  remainder  of  the  eastern 
and  the  entire  northern  wall,  and  emptying  into  the  Tigris  at  the 
north-west  angle  of  the  city,  where  a  second  dam  kept  it  at  a  sufficient 
height.  On  the  eastern  side,  which  seems  to  have  been  the  weakest 
and  the  most  exposed,  a  series  of  outer  defenses  were  constructed  for 
the  further  protection  of  the  city.  North  of  the  Khosr-su,  betweeen 
the  city  wall  and  that  stream,  which  there  flows  parallel  to  the  wall 
and  forms  a  second  or  outer  moat,  are  the  remains  of  a  detached  fort 
which,  from  its  size,  evidently  added  considerable  strength  to  the  city's 
defenses  in  that  quarter.  The  works  are  yet  more  elaborate  to  the 
south  and  south-east  of  the  Khosr-su.  From  a  point  where  the  stream 
leaves  the  hills  and  reaches  low  ground,  a  deep  ditch,  two  hundred  feet 
wide,  was  extended  for  two  miles,  until  it  connected  with  the  ravine 
forming  the  natural  defense  of  the  city  on  the  south.  On  each  side 
of  the  ditch,  which  could  be  easily  filled  with  water  from  the  Khosr-su 
at  its  northern  extremity,  was  erected  a  high  and  wide  wall ;  the  eastern 
one  forming  the  outermost  defense,  and  rising  even  yet  a  hundred 
feet  above  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  on  which  it  adjoins.  Between  this 
outer  barrier  and  the  city  moat  was  a  kind  of  demi-lune,  defended  by 
a  double  wall  and  a  broad  ditch,  and  joined  by  a  covered  way  with 
the  city  itself.  Thus  Nineveh  was  protected  on  its  most  vulnerable 
side,  towards  the  centre,  by  five  walls  and  three  broad  and  deep  moats ; 
towards  the  north  by  a  wall,  a  moat,  the  Khosr-su  and  a  strong  out- 
post ;  towards  the  south  by  two  moats  and  three  lines  of  rampart.  The 
entire  fortification  on  the  eastern  side  is  two  thousand  two  hundred 
feet,  or  nearly  a  half  mile  wide. 

The  accounts  of  Ctesias  and  Diodorus  respecting  the  immense  size 
of  Nineveh  are  highly  exaggerated,  and  it  is  known  that  these  writers 
regarded  the  ruins  of  Nimrud,  Keremles,  Khorsabad  and  Koyunjik 
as  all  being  the  remains  of  that  renowned  Assyrian  capital.  The  Book 
of  Jonah  also  bears  testimony  to  the  immense  size  of  this  great  city. 
Unlike  Ctesias,  who  only  saw  the  ruins  of  Nineveh,  Jonah  saw  the  city 
itself  in  its  splendor.  This  Hebrew  prophet  tells  us  that  Nineveh 
was  "  an  exceeding  great  city,  of  three  days'  journey,"  and  also  that 
in  it  were  "  more  than  sixscore  thousand  persons  that  could  not  discern 
between  their  right  hand  and  their  left."  Though  these  passages  are 
very  vague,  they  yet  convey  some  idea  of  the  vastness  of  the  city.  It 
has  been  supposed  that  the  one  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  persons 


Accounts 
by 

Ctesias, 
Diodorus 
and  Jonah 
as  to  the 

Size  of 
Nineveh. 


234 


CHALD^A,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Assyrian 
Warfare. 


Accounts 

by  Isaiah, 

Nahum 

and 
Ctesias. 


Assyrian 

War- 
chariot. 


"  that  could  not  discern  between  their  right  hand  and  their  left "  were 
children,  which  would  thus  indicate  a  population  of  about  six  hundred 
thousand.  It  has  also  been  believed  that  the  phrase  "  six  score  thou- 
sand persons  that  could  not  discern  between  their  right  hand  and  their 
left  "  alluded  to  the  dense  ignorance  of  the  inhabitants,  in  which  case 
the  number  here  mentioned  included  the  entire  population  of  the  city. 

The  sculptures  of  the  Assyrians  furnish  us  with  very  complete  rep- 
resentations of  their  system  of  warfare.  The  Assyrians,  like  other 
ancient  nations,  fought  in  chariots,  on  horseback  and  on  foot.  Like 
the  Egyptians,  the  early  Greeks,  the  Canaanites,  the  Syrians,  the  Jews 
and  Israelites,  the  Philistines,  the  Hittites,  the  Lydians,  the  Elamites, 
or  Susianians,  the  Medes  and  Persians,  the  Hindoos,  the  Gauls,  the 
Britons,  and  other  peoples  of  antiquity,  the  Assyrians  looked  upon  the 
chariot  as  most  honorable.  Their  king  invariably  went  to  war  and 
battle  riding  in  a  chariot,  only  dismounting  and  shooting  his  arrows 
on  foot  while  besieging  a  town.  The  leading  officers  of  state,  and 
other  dignitaries  of  high  rank,  followed  the  same  custom.  The  cav- 
alry and  infantry  were  composed  of  persons  of  the  lower  classes. 

The  Jewish  prophet  Isaiah,  in  warning  his  countrymen  of  the  mis- 
eries in  store  for  them,  described  the  Assyrians  as  a  people  "  whose 
arrows  were  sharp,  and  all  their  bows  bent,  whose  horses'  hoofs  should 
be  counted  like  flint,  and  their  wheels  like  a  whirlwind."  The  same 
prophet,  in  afterwards  announcing  Jehovah's  displeasure  with  Sen- 
nacherib on  account  of  his  pride,  speaks  of  that  king's  reliance  upon 
"  the  multitude  of  his  chariots."  The  prophet  Nahum,  in  announc- 
ing the  coming  overthrow  of  the  haughty  nation,  declares  that  Jehovah 
against  her,  and  will  burn  her  chariots  in  the  smoke."  In  the 


IS 


fabulous  Assyrian  history  by  Ctesias  the  war-chariots  of  the  mythical 
king  Ninus  are  represented  as  amounting  to  nearly  eleven  thousand, 
and  those  of  his  wife  and  successor,  Semiramis,  are  estimated  at  the 
extravagant  number  of  one  hundred  thousand. 

The  Assyrian  war-chariot  is  believed  to  have  been  made  of  wood. 
Like  that  of  the  Greeks  and  Egyptians,  it  seems  to  have  been  mounted 
from  behind,  being  there  completely  open,  or  only  closed  by  means  of 
a  shield,  which  could  be  hung  across  the  aperture.  It  was  richly  orna- 
mented, and  completely  paneled  at  the  sides.  The  two  wheels  were 
placed  at  the  extreme  hind  end  of  the  body,  as  in  the  Egyptian  war- 
chariot.  The  chariot-wheels  of  the  early  period  had  six  spokes ;  those 
of  the  middle  and  later  periods  had  eight.  The  felloes  of  the  wheels 
usually  consisted  of  three  distinct  circles,  the  middle  one  being  the 
thinnest,  and  the  outer  one  the  thickest  of  the  three.  Sometimes  there 
'vas  a  fourth  circle.  These  circles  were  fastened  together  with  bands 
of  iron.  The  wheels  were  attached  to  an  axle-tree  fastened  to  the  body 


ASSYRIAN    CIVILIZATION. 


235 


without  any  springs  between  them.  They  were  furnished  with  bows, 
quivers  of  arrows,  spears,  or  javelins,  hatchets,  battle-axes  and  shields. 

The  chariots  were  drawn  by  two  or  three  horses,  two  being  yoked 
together  in  front,  while  the  third  was  hitched  before  the  others  by 
means  of  a  rope,  and  was  designed  as  a  supply  in  case  of  loss.  The 
harness  and  trappings  of  the  horses  were  extremely  rich  and  elegant ; 
ribbons,  tassels,  fringes  and  rosettes,  of  gay  colors,  profusely  deco- 
rating the  head,  neck  and  sides.  The  bits  and  ornaments  of  the  bridles 
were  of  gold  and  silver.  Embroidered  robes  were  sometimes  thrown 
over  the  backs  of  the  chariot -horses. 

The  chariots  contained  two  persons  at  least,  the  driver,  or  chariot- 
eer, and  the  warrior.  Sometimes  they  contained  in  addition  an  at- 
tendant who  protected  the  warrior  with  a  shield  while  he  discharged 
his  arrows  at  the  foe.  In  rare  instances  there  was  a  second  attendant 
with  a  shield  to  protect  the  archer  from  behind,  thus  making  four  per- 
sons occupying  the  chariot.  The  bow  was  the  usual  weapon  of  the 
chariot  warrior,  as  well  as  of  the  cavalry  and  infantry  soldiers.  The 
chariot  warrior  was  sometimes  dressed  in  a  long  tunic  confined  at  the 
waist  by  a  girdle,  and  sometimes  in  a  coat  of  mail,  like  the  Egyptian 
chariot  warrior.  Sometimes  he  descended  from  the  chariot  to  shoot 
off  his  arrows  on  foot. 

The  Assyrian  cavalry  rank  in  importance  almost  equally  with  the 
war-chariots.  Ctesias  made  the  number  of  horsemen  in  Assyrian 
armies  always  greater  than  the  chariots.  The  writer  of  the  Apoch- 
ryphal  Book  of  Judith  assigns  Holof ernes  twelve  thousand  horse-arch- 
ers, and  the  prophet  Ezekiel  alludes  apparently  to  all  the  "  desirable 
young  men  "  as  "  horsemen  riding  upon  horses."  The  Assyrian  sculp- 
tures represent  the  cavalry  as  far  exceeding  in  number  the  chariots. 
In  the  early  period  of  Assyrian  history  cavalry  were  but  little  used, 
but  in  the  times  of  Sargon  and  Sennacherib  the  cavalry  came  to  be 
prominent  in  all  battle  scenes,  the  chariot  being  only  used  by  the  king 
and  high  dignitaries.  The  cavalry  were  divided,  according  to  their 
weapons,  into  mounted  archers,  or  bowmen,  and  mounted  spearmen. 
In  the  early  period  each  cavalry  archer  was  accompanied  by  an  un- 
armed attendant,  who  managed  his  steed,  while  the  archer  discharged 
his  arrows. 

Assyrian  armies,  like  others,  consisted  mainly  of  infantry.  Ctesias 
gives  Ninus  1,700,000  footmen,  210,000  horsemen  and  10,600  char- 
iots. Xenophon  showed  the  wide  contrast  between  the  immense  host 
of  infantry  and  the  scanty  numbers  of  the  cavalry  and  the  chariots. 
Herodotus  says  that  the  Assyrians  in  the  great  army  of  Xerxes  were 
all  footmen.  The  Book  of  Judith  assigns  to  Holofernes  ten  times  as 
many  footmen  as  horsemen.  The  Assyrian  monuments  show  the  same 
1—18 


Chariot 
Horses 

and 
Harness. 


Chario- 
teers and 
Warriors. 


Assyrian 
Cavalry. 


Assyrian 
Infantry. 


236 


CHALD^KA,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Weapons 

and 
Armor. 


Military 
Cos- 
tumes. 


Trophies 

and 
Spoils. 


Scaling 

Ladders. 


proportion  of  infantry  to  cavalry,  and  represent  a  hundred  footmen 
to  each  chariot  soldier.  For  their  military  successes  the  Assyrians 
were  chiefly  indebted  to  the  valor,  discipline,  solidity  and  equipment 
of  their  infantry,  which  consisted  mainly  of  foot  archers,  or  bowmen, 
and  foot  spearmen.  Besides  these  the  foot  soldiers  embraced  swords- 
men, mace-bearers,  ax-bearers,  and  from  Sennacherib's  time,  slingers. 
Pioneers  accompanied  the  army  to  clear  away  trees  with  their  axes. 
In  Sargon's  time  the  foot  soldiers  consisted  of  those  of  the  light  equip- 
ment, those  of  the  intermediate  equipment,  and  those  of  the  heavy 
equipment.  Sennacherib's  foot  archers  embraced  four  classes,  two 
heavy-armed  and  two  light-armed. 

The  offensive  weapons  were  the  bow  and  arrow,  the  spear,  pike,  or 
javelin,  the  sword,  the  mace,  the  battle-ax  and  the  sling.  The  de- 
fensive armor  consisted  of  a  shield  of  metal  or  wicker-work ;  a  crested 
or  pointed  helmet  of  metal;  and  a  coat  of  mail,  consisting  of  succes- 
sive rows  of  iron  scales  in  the  early  period  and  reaching  to  the  feet  or 
knees,  and  in  later  times  composed  of  larger  metal  plates  and  bands 
fastened  together  and  reaching  only  as  low  as  the  waist. 

The  warriors  were  variously  costumed,  those  of  the  lighter  equip- 
ment only  wearing  a  short  tunic  reaching  from  the  waist  to  half-way 
down  the  thigh,  the  rest  of  the  person  being  bare ;  those  of  the  inter- 
mediate equipment  wearing  a  coat  of  mail  to  the  waist  and  a  tunic 
thence  to  half-way  down  the  thigh ;  and  those  of  the  heavy  equipment 
wearing  a  coat  of  mail  above  the  waist,  and  a  robe  thence  down  to  the 
feet.  Both  these  latter  classes  wore  helmets  over  the  head,  and  sandals 
on  the  feet.  The  arms  were  bare.  When  not  covered  by  the  robe  the 
legs  were  also  sometimes  bare,  and  sometimes  covered  by  close-fitting 
trousers  and  short  greaves,  or  boots.  The  hilts  of  swords  and  daggers 
were  ornamented  with  gold  chasings  of  elegant  forms,  and  the  points 
of  sheaths  with  the  beaks  of  birds.  The  bow  was  the  chief  weapon  of 
war,  alike  among  chariot,  cavalry  and  infantry  soldiers,  and  was  richly 
mounted. 

The  barbarous  custom  of  rewarding  those  who  carried  back  to  camp 
the  heads  of  foemen,  caused  the  heads  of  the  dead,  and  even  of  the 
wounded,  the  disarmed  and  the  unresisting,  of  the  enemy,  to  be  car- 
ried back  to  camp,  in  proof  of  the  slayer's  prowess.  Quarter  was 
generally  only  given  to  generals  and  dignitaries  of  rank  whom  it  was 
desirable  to  spare.  Scribes  were  always  present  to  take  an  account 
of  the  spoil  at  the  close  of  the  battle.  The  usual  practice  upon  taking 
a  city  or  town  was  to  plunder  it  of  everything  of  value. 

The  strongly-fortified  towns  of  an  enemy  were  besieged  and  assailed 
in  three  principal  ways.  The  attack  by  escalade  was  by  means  of 
ladders  placed  against  the  city  walls.  These  ladders  were  mounted 


ASSYRIAN    CIVILIZATION.  337 

by  the  spearmen,  followed  by  the  archers,  while  the  bowmen  and  sling- 
ers  kept  up  a  constant  discharge  of  arrows  and  stones.  The  assailants 
protected  themselves  with  their  shields.  The  besieged  endeavored  to 
dislodge  and  break  the  ladders,  and  defended  themselves  by  discharg- 
ing their  arrows  and  stones,  or  meeting  their  assailants  spear  to  spear 
and  shield  to  shield. 

If  the  escalade  failed,  or  was  impracticable,  the  battering-ram,  an  Battering- 
engine  mounted  on  four  or  six  wheels,  and  having  either  a  pointed  or 
blunt  head,  was  driven  with  force  against  the  walls  to  effect  a  breach. 
In  connection  with  the  battering-ram  a  movable  tower  containing  sol- 
diers was  sometimes  employed,  the  besiegers  being  thus  enabled  to  meet 
the  besieged  on  a  level  and  protect  the  engine  from  attacks.  The 
besieged  often  tried  to  fire  the  battering-ram  by  casting  upon  it 
torches,  burning  tow  or  other  inflammable  substances.  To  thwart 
these  attempts  the  soldiers  in  the  battering-ram  were  furnished  with  a 
supply  of  water  which  they  directed  through  leather  or  metal  pipes 
against  the  combustibles.  Sometimes  they  suspended  a  curtain  of 
cloth  or  leather  from  a  pole  in  front  of  the  battering-ram  to  protect 
themselves.  Sometimes  the  besieged  attempted  to  catch  the  point  of 
the  battering-ram  by  means  of  a  chain  suspended  from  the  walls,  but 
the  besiegers  in  turn  tried  to  catch  the  chain  by  means  of  strong  metal 
hooks.  The  Assyrians  in  their  sieges  also  used  a  catapult,  a  large 
engine  designed  for  throwing  stones  against  fortified  walls,  the  besieg- 
ers working  the  engine  from  a  mound  or  inclined  plane,  and  the  be- 
sieged endeavoring  to  destroy  it  by  fire.  The  besiegers  also  endeav- 
ored to  mine  the  foundations  of  the  walls  by  means  of  crowbars  and 
pickaxes,  protecting  themselves  by  holding  their  shields  above  them. 
Sometimes  the  besiegers  would  try  to  break  open  the  gates  with  axes, 
or  fire  them  with  the  torch.  When  a  city  or  town  was  taken  it  was 
fired,  its  walls  demolished  and  its  treasures  carried  off. 

The  Assyrians  had  three  modes  of  executing  captives — impaling  Treat- 
them  on  stakes  in  the  ground,  beating  in  their  skulls  with  a  mace,  and  (^^y^ 
beheading  them.  Several  bas-reliefs  represent  them  flaying  prisoners 
with  a  knife.  This  may  have  been  after  death,  as  was  the  custom  of 
the  Persians  and  the  barbarous  Scythians.  Sometimes  prisoners  were 
punished  by  mutilation  instead  of  death.  Cutting  off  the  ears,  blind- 
ing the  eyes  with  hot  irons,  cutting  off  the  nose,  and  tearing  out  the 
tongue  by  the  roots,  have  always  been  favorite  Asiatic  punishments. 
Asshur-izir-pal  says  in  his  great  inscription  that  he  frequently  cut 
off  the  noses  and  ears  of  captives ;  and  a  slab  of  Asshur-bani-pal  rep- 
resents a  captive  in  the  hands  of  torturers,  one  holding  the  prisoner's 
head,  and  another  thrusting  his  hand  into  his  mouth  to  tear  out  the 
tongue.  The  captives  consisted  of  men,  women  and  children.  The 


238 


CHALD^A,   ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Captured 
Animals. 


Assyrian 

Des- 
potism . 


Royal 
Harem. 
Royal 
Dignity 

and 
Customs . 


men  were  driven  in  bands  under  the  conduct  of  brutal  officers,  who 
hurried  them  on  by  blows  to  the  Assyrian  capital,  where  the  kings  em- 
ployed them  in  labor.  The  skilled  workmen  were  required  to  aid  in 
ornamenting  palaces  and  shrines.  The  great  mass  of  the  unskilled 
laborers  were  set  to  work,  under  brutal  taskmasters,  in  quarrying  and 
transporting  stone,  in  raising  mounds,  making  bricks,  etc.  Some- 
times the  captives  were  only  colonized  in  new  regions,  to  prevent  re- 
bellion in  their  own  native  lands,  and  to  keep  down  malcontents  in 
their  new  abodes. 

Besides  captives,  the  Assyrians  carried  off  great  numbers  of  domes- 
ticated animals,  such  as  oxen,  sheep,  goats,  horses,  asses,  mules  and 
camels.  Sennacherib,  in  his  inscriptions,  says  that  in  one  foray  he 
carried  away  from  the  tribes  on  the  Euphrates  "  7,200  horses  and 
mares,  5,230  camels,  11,000  mules,  120,000  oxen  and  800,000  sheep." 
Other  Assyrian  monarchs  mention  the  captured  animals  as  "  too  nu- 
merous to  be  counted,"  or  "  countless  as  the  stars  of  heaven."  Pre- 
cious metals  were  often  among  the  spoils  carried  off. 

As  in  all  other  Asiatic  monarchies  from  time  immemorial,  the  severest 
form  of  despotism  existed  in  Assyria.  The  sovereign's  will  was  law, 
and  no  code  was  in  existence  to  restrict  his  judgments,  even  the  ancient 
customs  and  usages  being  set  aside  at  his  pleasure.  The  king  was  the 
head  of  the  church,  as  well  as  of  the  state,  and  claimed  divine  worship. 
His  palace  was  filled  with  as  many  wives  and  concubines  as  he  chose 
to  collect,  and  these  were  placed  under  the  guardianship  of  eunuchs,  an 
unfortunate  class,  first  brought  into  use  in  Assyria.  The  portion  of 
the  palace  assigned  to  the  kings'  women  was  his  harem,  or  seraglio. 

A  rigid  etiquette  separated  the  king  from  his  subjects,  no  one  being 
allowed  access  to  him  except  through  the  proper  court  officials,  who 
always  accompanied  him.  No  one  but  the  vizier  and  the  chief  eunuch 
were  permitted  to  begin  conversation  with  the  king,  who  was  seated 
on  his  throne  when  he  received  them,  they  standing  before  him.  As 
a  rule,  the  Assyrian  kings  led  hardy  and  active  lives.  In  times  of 
peace  they  superintended  the  public  works,  administered  justice,  and 
found  recreation  in  the  dangerous  pastime  of  hunting  the  lion  and  the 
wild  bull.  In  war  the  king  generally  rode  in  his  chariot,  though  he 
occasionally  marched  on  foot,  going  into  battle  in  the  same  manner. 
The  sovereign  showed  himself  freely  to  his  subjects,  but  maintained 
his  haughty  dignity  in  everything,  and  was  very  seldom  the  effeminate 
voluptuary  that  the  Greeks  supposed  him  to  be.  The  Assyrian  court 
ceremonial  was  most  elaborate  and  imposing.  The  monarch's  dress  in 
peace  and  war  was  of  the  most  exceeding  magnificence,  and  while  en- 
gaged in  the  religious  ceremonies  prescribed  for  him  he  was  clothed 
in  a  special  dress. 


ASSYRIAN    DRESS   AND   WEAPONS 

Upper  Section:   War  and  Hunting  Chariots 

Middle  Section:   The  King  and  Attendant  Pages  Hunting 

Lower  Section:    Royal  Chariot  and  War  Weapons 


ASSYRIAN    CIVILIZATION.  339 

The  musical  instruments  of  the  Assyrians  were  the  harp,  the  lyre,     Musical 
the  guitar,  the  pipe,  the  tambourine,  the  cymbal,  the  drum,  the  dul-      mints' 
cimer  and  the  trumpet.      Bands  of  musicians  are  represented  in  some 
of  the  bas-reliefs,  showing  their  employment  on  the  occasions  of  public 
ceremonials. 

The  usual  apparel  of  the  common  people  was  a  plain  tunic,  reaching  Dress. 
from  the  neck  almost  down  to  the  knee,  and  held  to  the  waist  by  a  wide 
belt  or  girdle.  The  sleeves  were  very  short.  The  head  and  feet  were 
entirely  bare.  The  king  and  his  great  officers  wore  head-dresses  and 
shoes.  Laborers  above  the  lowest  grade  wore  sandals.  The  better 
class  of  laborers  wore  close-fitting  trousers  and  leather  boots.  The 
lower  classes  wore  no  ornaments ;  armlets  and  bracelets  being  worn  only 
by  persons  of  rank,  and  ear-rings  by  soldiers  and  musicians.  Men  of 
rank  wore  long  fringed  robes  extending  almost  down  to  the  feet,  the 
sleeves  being  short  and  barely  covering  the  shoulders.  This  robe  fitted 
closely  down  to  the  waist,  where  it  was  confined  to  the  body  with  a  belt 
or  girdle,  being  loose  below  the  waist.  The  jewelry  of  the  higher 
classes  consisted  of  fillets,  ear-rings,  armlets  and  bracelets.  Women 
of  the  upper  ranks  were  dressed  in  long  fringed  gowns,  looser  than 
those  of  the  men,  the  sleeves  being  long.  Over  this  dress  they  fre- 
quently wore  a  short  cloak  of  a  similar  pattern,  open  in  front  and 
falling  over  the  arms,  which  they  covered  as  far  down  as  the  elbows. 
Their  hair  was  arranged  in  short  crisp  curls,  or  carried  back  in  waves 
to  the  ears,  from  which  it  was  in  part  twisted  into  long  pendant  ring- 
lets, and  in  part  curled,  like  that  of  the  men,  in  three  or  four  rows 
at  the  back  of  the  neck.  A  fillet  frequently  encircled  the  head.  They 
also  wore  girdles  around  the  waist.  Their  feet  were  either  bare  or 
protected  by  sandals.  Women  of  the  lower  classes  wore  only  a  gown 
extending  down  to  the  ankles,  and  a  hood  to  cover  the  head.  The  orna- 
ments and  toilet  articles  of  the  upper  ranks  of  Assyrian  women  ex- 
hibited the  high  degree  of  luxury  in  their  manner  of  living.  The 
chief  dignitaries  wore  richly -figured  robes.  The  men  seem  to  have 
prized  their  beards,  which  they  dressed  in  long  artificial  curls. 

The  Assyrians  were   fond  of  entertainments,  and  these  were   con-   Social  En- 
ducted  with  great  pomp  and  luxury.     Drinking  scenes  are  represented     tertain~ 
on  the  sculptures.     They  had  vessels  of  gold  and  silver.     Wine  flowed 
freely;  while  delicious  fruits,  rich  viands,  honey,  incense,  conserves  of 
dates,  etc.,  were  among  the  delicacies  of  the  repast.     Women,  even 
wives,  danced  naked  before  the  guests ;  while  the  music  of  stringed 
instruments  heightened  the  festivity  of  the  occasion. 

The  Assyrians  carried  on  an  extensive  commerce,  principally  by  land    Assyrian 
and  by  means  of  caravans.     At  a  later  period  their  maritime  traffic 

U1CIC6* 

was  likewise  considerable.     They  imitated  the  Phrenician  ships,  which 


240 


CHALD^EA,   ASSYRIA,   BABYLONIA. 


Assyrian 
Sculpture 

and 

Manufac- 
tures. 


Assyrian 
Architec- 
ture. 


are  also  represented  in  the  later  sculptures.  The  first  Assyrian  ships 
seem  to  have  been  round,  with  ribs  of  willow  boughs  covered  with  skins. 
They  had  neither  stem  nor  stern.  They  were  used  chiefly  on  rivers, 
though  large  and  strong  enough  to  transport  cattle. 

The  genius  and  greatness  of  the  Assyrian  people  are  displayed  in 
their  art  and  manufactures,  and  not  in  the  field  of  literature  and  sci- 
ence. The  works  of  their  sculptors,  and  the  products  of  their  shops 
and  factories,  bear  testimony  to  the  patience,  diligence  and  care  which 
they  exhibited  in  every  field  of  material  and  practical  activity.  The 
characteristics  of  their  sculptures,  and  their  manifest  appreciation  of 
works  of  general  utility,  show  their  preference  for  the  practical  over 
the  theoretical,  for  the  useful  over  the  ideal,  for  the  real  over  the 
imaginary. 

Architecture,  the  only  one  of  the  fine  arts  actually  useful,  consti- 
tuted their  greatest  glory.  Unlike  the  Egyptians,  whose  chief  works 
were  their  temples  and  tombs,  the  interest  attaching  to  which  is  spirit- 
ual and  ideal,  the  Assyrians  bestowed  most  attention  on  their  palaces 
and  dwellings,  the  more  useful  structures.  Assyrian  sculptures  aimed 
to  illustrate  the  real,  the  historically  true;  the  only  departure  from 
this  rule  being  the  representations  of  dragons  fighting,  and  the  colossal 
winged  man-headed  bulls  and  lions  guarding  the  entrances  and  pass- 
ages of  palaces,  which  are  the  symbols  of  strength  combined  with  in- 
telligence. With  the  exception  of  the  few  emblematic  figures  relating 
to  the  Assyrian  religion,  the  Assyrian  bas-reliefs  are  closely  cjpied 
from  nature.  The  imitation  is  always  laborious,  but  in  most  case.'  very 
accurate.  Even  where  the  laws  of  representation  are  apparently  de- 
parted from,  it  is  always  done  to  impress  correct  ideas  upon  the  be- 
holder. Thus  the  gigantic  stone  bulls  and  lions  have  five  legs,  so  that 
they  may  appear  from  every  point  of  view  as  having  four.  The  lad- 
ders are  set  edgeways  against  the  walls  of  besieged  cities,  to  show  that 
they  are  really  ladders.  The  disproportionate  smallness  of  city  walls, 
as  represented  in  these  sculptures,  is  designed  to  convey  a  full  and 
correct  idea  of  the  real  fact.  The  spirit  of  faithfulness  and  honesty 
pervading  these  sculptures  is  fully  illustrated  by  the  painstaking  fin- 
ish, the  minute  detail,  the  elaboration  of  every  hair  in  a  beard,  and 
every  stitch  in  the  embroidery  of  a  dress.  The  Assyrian  sculptures 
have  a  grandeur  and  a  dignity,  a  boldness,  a  strength,  and  a  life-like 
appearance,  which  render  them  intrinsically  valuable  as  works  of  art, 
and  which  excite  our  wonder  and  admiration ;  though  in  conception, 
in  grace,  and  in  freedom  and  perfection  of  outline,  they  are  surpassed 
by  the  wonderful  productions  of  the  Greek  sculptors.  Egyptian  art 
was  confined  to  a  lifeless  religious  conventionalism  which  checked  prog- 
ress; Assyrian  art  aimed  to  represent  vividly  the  highest  scenes  of 


i 


ROYAL   ASSYRIAN    COSTUMES   AND   FURNITURE 


ASSYRIAN    CIVILIZATION.  341 

human  activity.  All  phases  of  war — the  march  of  the  army,  the 
battle-field,  the  pursuit  of  the  fleeing  foe,  the  siege  of  cities,  the  pass- 
age of  rivers  and  marshes,  the  submission  and  treatment  of  captives, 
and  the  "  mimic  war  "  of  hunting — the  chase  of  the  lion,  the  stag,  the 
antelope,  the  wild  bull  and  the  wild  ass — constitute  the  chief  subjects 
of  Assyrian  sculpture ;  and  here  all  conventionality  is  utterly  discarded. 
Fresh  scenes,  new  groupings,  bold  and  strange  attitudes,  are  contin- 
ually seen;  and  the  animal  representations  particularly  exhibit  an  un- 
ceasing advance  with  the  progress  of  time,  gradually  becoming  more 
and  more  spirited,  more  varied,  more  true  to  nature,  though  propor- 
tionately losing  in  the  qualities  of  grandeur  and  majesty.  This  dis- 
position to  depict  things  in  their  reality  continues  to  develop  in  per- 
fection ;  and  the  progress  in  grace  and  delicacy  of  execution  fully 
'testify  to  the  progressive  character  of  Assyrian  art,  which  only  cul- 
minated in  the  closing  years  of  the  empire,  during  the  brilliant  reign 
of  Asshur-bani-pal.  The  art  of  Assyria  was  thoroughly  national,  and 
developed  by  the  inherent  genius  of  the  race. 

In  manufactures  and  the  useful  arts  the  Assyrians  displayed  a  pre-  Manufaft 
eminence  over  all  other  ancient  Oriental  nations.  The  native  indus-  useful 
trial  skill  of  this  great  people  produced  in  abxindance  what  was  re-  Arts, 
quired  for  their  comfort  and  happiness ;  while  the  multitudes  of  skilled 
workmen  brought  to  Nineveh  from  the  conquered  nations  by  every 
war,  in  accordance  with  the  policy  of  the  Assyrian  monarchs,  led  to 
the  introduction  of  foreign  fabrics  and  manufactures  in  the  great 
Assyrian  cities,  and  thus  contributed  to  the  industrial  development  of 
this  active  and  practical  race.  The  plunder,  tribute  and  commerce 
of  the  subject  states  united  to  enrich  Assyria  with  the  products  of  all 
civilized  lands.  The  vases,  jars,  bronzes,  glass  bottles,  carved  orna- 
ments of  ivory  and  mother-of-pearl,  engraved  gems,  bells,  dishes,  ear- 
rings, arms,  working  implements,  musical  instruments,  etc.,  found  In 
recent  years  at  Koyunjik,  Nimrud  and  Khorsabad,  were  the  products 
of  Assyrian  skill  and  industry.  Most  of  the  weapons  of  warfare, 
offensive  and  defensive,  used  by  the  stalwart  warriors  of  Assyria,  were 
forged  in  abundance  in  the  armories  of  this  great  military  nation. 

Most  of  the  ornaments,  utensils,  etc.,  are  of  elegant  forms,  and  dis-      Metal- 
play  much  knowledge  of  metallurgy  and  other  arts,  as  well  as  a  refined      Glass- 
taste;  and  some  of  these  anticipate  inventions  supposed  until  recently    blowing, 
to  have  been  modern.     One  of  these  was  transparent  glass,  and  glass- 
blowing  was  one  of  the  industries  of  Assyria,  as  it  had  been  of  ancient 
Egypt.     A  lens  discovered  at  Nimrud,  together  with  the  fact  that 
many  of  the  Assyrian  inscriptions  are  so  minute  that  they  can  not 
be  read  without  the  use  of  magnifying-glasses,  proves  that  they  must 
have  used  such  glasses  in  making  these  inscriptions. 

VOL.    1. — 16 


CHALD^A,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Ornamen- 
tal Metal- 
lurgy. 


Other 

Practical 

Arts. 


Rawlin- 
sonon 
Assyrian 
Civiliza- 
tion. 


Assyrian 
Con- 
quests 

and 

Material 
Great- 
ness. 


The  ornamental  metallurgy  of  the  Assyrians  displayed  wonderful 
skill ;  and  consisted  of  entire  figures  or  parts  of  figures  cast  solid,  cast- 
ings in  low  relief,  and  embossed  work  wrought  principally  with  the 
hammer,  "  but  finished  by  a  sparing  use  of  the  graving  tool."  The 
solid  figures,  most  of  which  were  small,  comprised  animal  forms,  chiefly 
lions.  Castings  in  low  relief  were  principally  used  in  the  ornamenta- 
tion of  thrones  and  chariots,  and  embraced  animal  and  human  figures, 
winged  deities,  griffins,  etc.  The  embossed  work  was  curious  and  ele- 
gant, as  displayed  in  weapons,  ornaments  for  the  person,  household 
implements  and  numerous  other  objects.  The  ornamental  metallurgy 
of  the  Assyrians  was  mostly  in  bronze,  consisting  of  one  part  of  tin 
to  ten  parts  of  copper,  which  is  yet  regarded  as  the  best  proportion. 

The  Assyrians  also  understood  other  practical  arts.  Their  build- 
ings show  that  they  were  acquainted  with  the  principle  of  the  arch. 
They  constructed  tunnels,  aqueducts  and  drains.  They  knew  the  use 
of  the  pulley,  the  lever  and  the  roller ;  and  constantly  used  the  inclined 
plane  in  attacking  fortified  towns.  They  understood  the  arts  of  in- 
laying, enameling  and  overlaying  with  metals;  and  they  cut  and  en- 
graved gems  with  a  degree  of  skill  and  finish  not  excelled  by  the  French 
in  our  own  day.  The  Assyrians  excelled  in  the  arts  of  weaving  and 
dyeing.  They  decorated  their  stuffs  by  introducing  colored  threads 
and  tissues  of  gold  in  the  woof.  They  had  indigo,  cotton  and  silk  in 
abundance.  Some  Assyrian  plows  have  been  found.  Irrigation  was 
common.  Sesame,  millet  and  corn  were  the  chief  articles  of  food.  In- 
deed, Assyrian  civilization  did  not  fall  far  behind  the  boasted  achieve- 
ments of  the  moderns. 

Says  Rawlinson  concerning  the  civilization  of  this  wonderful  ancient 
people :  "  With  much  that  was  barbaric  still  attaching  to  them,  with 
a  rude  and  inartificial  government,  savage  passions,  a  debasing  religion, 
and  a  general  tendency  to  materialism,  they  were,  towards  the  close 
of  their  empire,  in  all  the  ordinary  arts  and  appliances  of  life,  very 
nearly  on  a  par  with  ourselves ;  and  thus  their  history  furnishes  a  warn- 
ing— which  the  records  of  nations  constantly  repeat — that  the  greatest 
material  prosperity  may  co-exist  with  the  decline — and  herald  the 
downfall — of  a  kingdom." 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  inherent  genius  of  the  Assyrian  people 
displayed  itself  in  centuries  of  continued  conquest  and  in  material 
greatness.  The  glory  of  their  arms  and  the  grandeur  of  their  art 
gave  them  the  ascendency  over  the  nations  of  Western  Asia  for  almost 
seven  hundred  years.  Their  almost  uninterrupted  course  of  conquests 
poured  wealth  into  their  great  capitals,  developed  luxury,  and  made 
them  haughty  and  domineering.  The  mingled  civilization  and  bar- 
barism exhibited  in  the  case  of  this  mighty  ancient  Asiatic  people  has 


THE    LATER    BABYLONIAN    EMPIRE. 


ever  been  the  distinguishing  characteristic  of  all  the  great  Oriental 
empires  which  have  successively  risen,  flourished,  decayed,  and  crum- 
bled to  pieces. 


SECTION  VIII.— THE  LATER  BABYLONIAN  EMPIRE. 

THE  history  of  the  Babylonian  Empire  begins  with  Nabopolassar, 
who  ascended  the  throne  of  Babylon  in  B.  C.  625.  We  have  observed 
in  the  history  of  Assyria,  that  from  the  time  of  Tiglathi-Nin's  con- 
quest of  Chaldaea,  in  B.  C.  1300,  that  country  sunk  into  a  state  of 
comparative  insignificance,  and  remained,  during  the  whole  period  of 
Assyrian  ascendency  in  Western  Asia,  subject  to  Assyria,  or  occupied 
a  secondary  position  among  the  Oriental  nations.  The  Assyrians  at 
first  governed  Chaldaea  from  their  own  capital,  but  they  soon  placed 
the  country  under  an  Assyrian  dynasty,  over  which  they  claimed  and 
exercised  a  sort  of  suzerainty,  but  which  was  practically  independent 
and  ruled  its  kingdom  without  interference. 

The  first  monarch  of  the  Assyrian  dynasty  in  Chaldsea  was  NEBU- 
CHADNEZZAR I.,  a  contemporary  of  Asshur-ris-ilim,  King  of  Assyria. 
Nebuchadnezzar  twice  attacked  Nineveh;  first  by  way  of  the  Diyaleh 
and  the  outlying  Zagros  hills,  the  route  of  the  great  Persian  military 
road  in  subsequent  times ;  and  secondly  by  crossing  directly  the  Meso- 
potamian  plain.  The  Assyrian  records  say  that  both  these  attacks 
were  repulsed,  and  that  after  his  second  failure  the  Babylonian  king 
retreated  hastily  back  into  his  own  dominions.  Tiglath-Pileser  I., 
King  of  Assyria,  the  son  and  successor  of  Asshur-ris-ilim,  led  an  ex- 
pedition into  Babylonia,  then  ruled  by  MERODACH-IDDIN-AKHI,  the  suc- 
cessor of  Nebuchadnezzar  I.  After  a  struggle  of  two  years,  and  tak- 
ing Kurri-galzu  (now  Akkerkuf),  the  two  Sipparas,  Opis,  and  even 
Babylon  itself,  Tiglath-Pileser  returned  to  Assyria,  harassed  on  his 
retreat  by  the  Babylonian  monarch,  who  captured  the  Assyrian  bag- 
gage, along  with  certain  Assyrian  idols,  which  were  carried  as  trophies 
to  Babylon.  Babylonia  and  Assyria  continued  at  war  during  the  fol- 
lowing reigns  of  MERODACH-SHAPIK-ZIRI  in  the  former  country  and 
Asshur-bil-kala  in  the  latter,  without  any  important  result. 

The  period  of  these  Assyro-Babylonian  wars  synchronizes  with  the 
epoch  of  the  judges  in  Israel,  and  was  succeeded  by  an  interval  of 
obscurity  in  the  history  of  both  Assyria  and  Babylonia.  Assyria  had 
sunk  into  a  declining  condition ;  while  Babylonia  was  prosperous,  and 
according  to  the  testimony  of  Asshur-izir-pal,  the  great  Assyrian  mon- 
arch of  the  ninth  century  before  Christ,  conquered  some  of  the  Assyr- 
ian territories,  and  according  to  Macrobius  held  communication  with 
Egypt, 


Chal- 
dsea's 
Subjec- 
tion to 
Assyria. 


Nebu- 
chadnez- 
zar I. 


His 
Attacks 

on 

Nineveh 
Repulsed. 

Mero- 
dach-id- 
din-akhi. 


Mero- 
dach-sha- 
pik-ziri. 

Obscure 
Period. 


244 


CHALD^EA,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Assyrian 
Invasions 
of  Baby- 
lonia. 


Mero- 

dach- 
sum- 
adin. 


Assyrian 
Invasion. 

Mero- 

dach- 

belatzu- 

ikbi. 


The 

Scriptural 
Pul. 


Baby- 
lonian 

Indepen- 
dence 
under 

Nabonas- 
sar. 


Era  of 

Nabonas- 
sar. 


But  after  remaining  for  two  centuries  in  a  state  of  comparative 
weakness  and  unimportance,  Assyria  entered  upon  another  period  of 
prosperity  and  greatness,  and  made  Babylonia  feel  the  effects  of  her 
vengeance.  The  Assyrian  king,  Asshur-izir-pal,  invaded  Babylonia 
about  B.  C.  880,  and  recovered  the  territories  which  the  Babylonians 
had  held  during  the  period  of  Assyria's  depression.  Asshur-izir-pal's 
son  and  successor,  Shalmaneser  II.,  the  Black  Obelisk  king,  led  an 
expedition  into  Babylonia  while  that  country  was  distracted  by  a  civil 
war  between  its  legitimate  sovereign,  MERODACH-STTM-ADIN,  and  his 
younger  brother.  Shalmanaser  took  a  number  of  Babylonian  towns, 
and  was  allowed  to  enter  Babylon  itself  after  defeating  and  slaying 
the  pretender  to  the  Babylonian  throne;  after  which  he  overran  Chal- 
daea,  or  the  district  upon  the  coast,  which  seems  to  have  been  then  in- 
dependent of  Babylon  and  governed  by  a  number  of  petty  kings.  The 
Chaldsean  chiefs  were  forced  to  pay  tribute ;  and,  having  "  struck  ter- 
ror as  far  as  the  sea,"  the  Assyrian  king  returned  to  his  capital.  Thus 
all  of  Babylonia  and  Chaldaea  was  again  under  Assyrian  influence ;  and 
Babylonia  was  once  more  a  secondary  power,  dependent  on  Assyria. 

About  B.  C.  821  the  Assyrian  king,  Shamas-Vul  II.,  the  son  and 
successor  of  Shalmaneser  II.,  invaded  Babylonia,  defeated  its  king, 
MEEODACH-BELATZU-IKBI,  in  two  pitched  battles,  and  forced  him  to 
submit  to  Assyrian  suzerainty;  though  in  the  last  battle  he  had  been 
aided  by  the  Zimri  of  Mount  Zagros,  the  Aramaeans  of  the  Euphrates, 
and  the  Chaldaeans  of  the  South.  Babylon  remained  under  Assyrian 
supremacy  until  the  middle  of  the  eighth  century  before  Christ,  when 
it  is  supposed  that  PUL,  seeing  his  opportunity  in  Assyria's  weakness 
under  Asshur-dayan  III.,  about  B.  C.  770,  shook  off  the  hated  yoke 
of  Assyria  and  extended  the  Babylonian  dominion  over  the  Euphrates 
valley  and  Western  Mesopotamia,  whence  he  proceeded  to  extend  his 
conquests  into  Syria  and  Palestine.  But  such  obscurity  rests  upon 
Pul  that  it  is  not  positively  known  whether  he  was  a  Babylonian  king. 
The  Jewish  Scriptures  call  him  "  king  of  Assyria,"  and  Berosus  rep- 
resents him  as  "  Chaldseorum  rex." 

Soon  after  regaining  its  independence,  Babylonia  was  disintegrated 
into  a  number  of  independent  sovereignties — Nabonassar  governing 
Babylon;  Yakin,  the  father  of  Merodach-Baladan,  ruling  the  Chal- 
dsean  coast  region ;  and  Nadina,  Zakiru  and  other  princes  holding  sway 
in  petty  districts  in  Northern  Babylonia.  NABONASSAE,  who  became 
King  of  Babylon  in  B.  C.  747,  is  regarded  as  the  restorer  of  Baby- 
lonian independence ;  and  the  year  of  his  accession,  known  as  the  "  Era 
of  Nabonassar,"  was  the  point  from  which  the  Babylonians  thereafter 
reckoned  dates  of  events.  According  to  Berosus,  Nabonassar  sought 
to  obliterate  the  memory  of  the  previous  epoch  of  Babylonian  sub- 


THE    LATER    BABYLONIAN    EMPIRE. 

jection  to  Assyria  by  having  "  destroyed  the  acts  of  the  kings  who 
had  preceded  him." 

Nabonassar  lived  at  peace  with  the  contemporary  King  of  Assyria,  Relations 
Tiglath-Pileser  II.,  who  early  in  his  reign  invaded  the  other  portions 
of  Babylonia  and  Chaldsea,  forcing  Merodach-Baladan,  the  son  and 
successor  of  Yakin,  to  become  his  tributary.     Nabonassar  reigned  over 
Babylon  fourteen  years,  from  B.  C.  747  to  B.  C.  733.     It  has  been 
generally  believed  that  the  time  of  Nabonassar's  reign  was  the  same  as 
that  assigned  by  Herodotus  to  the  reign  of  Semiramis,  who,  as  the  wife      Queen 
or  as  the  mother  of  Nabonassar,  governed  Babylon  on  behalf  of  her       ^^ra" 
husband  or  her  son.     But  this  is  a  mere  conjecture,  contradicted  by 
the  native  records.     We  have  observed  in  the  history  of  Assyria  that 
Semiramis  was  a  Babylonian  princess  married  to  the  Assyrian  king, 
Vul-lush  III.,  who  reigned  from  B.  C.  810  to  B.  C.  781.     Nabonassar 
was  followed  on  the  Babylonian  throne  by  NADIUS,  who  reigned  only     Nadius. 
two  years,  from  B.  C.  733  to  B.  C.  731.     Nadius  is  supposed  to  have 
been  one  of  the  independent  Babylonian  princes  reduced  to  subjection 
by  Tiglath-Pileser  I.  in  his  expedition  into  Babylonia.     Nadius  was  Chinzinus 
succeeded  by  CHINZINUS  and  PORUS,  who  jointly  reigned  from  B.  C.      Porus. 
731  to  B.  C.  726.     Their  successor  was  ELUL^EUS,  identified  with  the 
prince  of  that  name  called  King  of  Tyre  by  Menander  —  the  Luliya  Elulaus. 
of  the  cuneiform  inscriptions;  but  Rawlinson  considers  this  theory  a 
mere  conjecture  and  highly  improbable. 

MERODACH-BALADAN  —  the   successor   of  Elulaeus,   and  the   son   of     Mero- 
Yakin,  the  prince  who  established  himself  in  authority  over  Southern 


Babylonia,  the  ancient  Chaldaea,  and  founded  a  capital  city,  naming 
it  after  himself  Beth-  Yakin,  or  Bit-  Yakin  —  inherited  the  dominion  of 
Yakin  upon  the  death  of  the  latter.     Being  forced  to  become  tributary 
to  the  Assyrian  king,  Tiglath-Pileser  II.,  he  remained  in  comparative 
obscurity  and  quiet  during  the  reigns  of  Tiglath-Pileser  II.  and  Shal- 
maneser  IV.  in  Assyria  ;  but  when  Sargon  usurped  the  Assyrian  throne, 
B.  C.  721,  Merodach-Baladan  established  his  sway  over  Babylonia,  of 
which  he  was  recognized  as  king.     It  was  some  time  during  his  twelve        His 
years'  reign  over  Babylon  that  Merodach-Baladan  sent  ambassadors     '    ^0 
to  Hezekiah  at  Jerusalem  to  ascertain  the  particulars  of  the  strange  Hezekiah, 
astronomical  marvel,  or  miracle,  accompanying  the  sickness  and  re-    judah. 
covery  of  that  king.     Hezekiah  exhibited  all  his  treasures  to  these 
ambassadors.     A  coalition  appears  to  have  been  formed  against  As- 
syria by  Babylon,  Susiana,  the  Aramaean  tribes,  Judah  and  Egypt.     In 
B.  C.  711  Sargon,  King  of  Assyria,  invaded  Egypt  and  compelled  its  HisDefeat 
Ethiopian  king,  Sabaco,  to  sue  for  peace.     In  the  following  year, 
B.  C.  710,  Sargon  led  an  army  into  Babylonia,  defeated  Merodach- 
Baladan  and  his  Aramaean  and  Susianian  allies  in  a  great  battle,  and 


24,6 


CHALD^EA,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Revolts 
against 
Assyria 

Hagisa. 

Mero- 
dach- 

Baladan's 
Escape, 
Defeat 

and  Exile. 


Baby- 
lonian 

Subjec- 
tion to 

Assyria. 


Revolts 
Crushed. 


Nabopo- 
lassar's 
Revolt 
against 
Assyria. 


took  Bit-Yakin,  making  Merodach-Baladan  prisoner  and  gaining  pos- 
session of  all  his  treasures ;  whereupon  Babylonia  submitted  to  Sargon, 
who  carried  Merodach-Baladan  captive  to  Assyria,  and  himself  as- 
sumed the  title  of  "  King  of  Babylon." 

But  when  Sargon  died,  B.  C.  704,  the  Babylonians  cast  off  the  As- 
syrian yoke.  A  number  of  pretenders  claimed  the  Babylonian  crown. 
A  son  of  Sargon  and  a  brother  of  Sennacherib  restored  Assyrian  su- 
premacy for  a  short  time,  but  the  Babylonians  again  revolted.  HAGISA 
reigned  over  Babylon  about  a  month.  Merodach-Baladan,  escaping 
from  his  Assyrian  captivity,  murdered  Hagisa  and  seized  the  Baby- 
lonian throne,  of  which  he  had  been  deprived  seven  years  before.  But 
Sennacherib,  King  of  Assyria,  Sargon's  son  and  successor,  led  an  army 
into  Babylonia  in  B.  C.  703,  defeated  Merodach-Baladan  and  drove 
him  into  exile,  after  a  reign  of  six  months,  and  annexed  Babylonia  to 
the  Assyrian  kingdom.  Thenceforth,  for  seventy-eight  years,  until 
the  revolt  of  Nabopolassar,  B.  C.  625,  Babylonia,  with  a  few  short 
intervals,  remained  an  Assyrian  dependency.  During  this  period  the 
Assyrian  monarchs  governed  Babylonia  by  means  of  viceroys,  such 
as  Belibus,  Regibelus,  Meses-imordachus  and  Saos-duchinus,  or  directly 
and  personally,  as  by  Esar-haddon  and  by  Asshur-bani-pal  in  his  later 
years.  During  Sennacherib's  reign  there  were  two  Babylonian  revolts 
against  Assyria,  one  headed  by  Merodach-Baladan  in  Chaldaea,  and  the 
other  by  Susub  at  Babylon.  These  were  soon  suppressed  by  Sen- 
nacherib, as  related  in  the  Assyrian  history.  While  Asshur-bani-pal 
was  King  of  Assyria,  his  brother,  Saiil-Mugina,  also  called  Sam- 
mughes,  or  Saos-duchinus,  attempted  to  make  himself  independent,  but 
was  subdued  and  burned  alive,  as  also  stated  in  the  history  of  Assyria. 
Thus  ended  the  second  period  of  Chaldaean,  or  Babylonian  history — 
the  period  of  Babylonian  and  Chaldsean  subjection  to  Assyria,  from 
Tiglathi-Nin's  conquest  in  B.  C.  1300  to  Nabopolassar's  successful 
revolt  in  B.  C.  625. 

We  will  now  proceed  to  the  history  of  the  Babylonian  Empire,  first 
relating  the  circumstances  of  its  foundation.  When  the  Medes  under 
their  valiant  king,  Cyaxares,  a  second  time  crossed  the  Zagros  range 
and  attacked  Nineveh  from  the  east,  the  Susianians  menaced  the  great 
capital  from  the  south.  In  this  extremity  the  last  Assyrian  king, 
Asshur-emid-ilin,  or  Saracus,  divided  his  forces,  retaining  a  portion 
under  his  own  command  for  the  defense  of  his  capital  against  the 
Medes,  and  sending  .a  portion  under  his  general,  Nabopolassar,  or 
Nabu-pal-uzur,  to  Babylon  to  oppose  the  advance  of  the  Susianians 
from  the  south.  Taking  advantage  of  the  perilous  straits  of  his  sov- 
ereign, Nabopolassar  resolved  to  betray  him  in  order  to  obtain  for  him- 
self an  independent  kingdom.  He  therefore  negotiated  an  alliance 


THE    LATER    BABYLONIAN    EMPIRE. 


247 


with  Cyaxares,  the  Median  king,  and  obtained  that  king's  daughter  as 
a  bride  for  his  own  son,  Nebuchadnezzar.  The  united  Median  and 
Babylonian  armies  then  besieged  Nineveh,  which  was  finally  taken  and 
destroyed,  B.  C.  625,  as  already  related  in  the  histories  of  Assyria  and 
Media.  In  the  division  of  the  Assyrian  Empire,  which  followed  the 
fall  of  Nineveh,  Cyaxares  obtained  Assyria  proper  and  all  Assyria's 
dependencies  towards  the  north  and  north-west ;  while  the  traitor  Nabo- 
polassar  received  Babylonia,  Chaldaea,  Susiana,  Upper  Mesopotamia, 
Syria  and  Palestine.  Thus  arose  the  Babylonian  Empire. 

We  know  very  little  about  the  reign  of  NABOPOLASSAR.  The  Canon 
of  Ptolemy  informs  us  that  he  dated  his  accession  from  the  year  B.  C. 
625,  and  that  his  reign  lasted  twenty-one  years,  ending  in  B.  C.  604. 
During  most  of  this  time  Babylonian  history  is  a  blank.  Babylon  had 
no  inclination  to  jeopardize  her  position  at  the  head  of  an  empire  by 
aggression,  and  her  peaceful  attitude  of  course  provoked  no  hostility 
from  her  neighbors.  Media,  bound  by  dynastic  interests  and  by  for- 
mal treaty,  could  be  depended  upon  as  a  firm  friend.  Persia  was  too 
feeble,  and  Lydia  too  distant,  to  be  formidable.  Egypt,  though  hos- 
tile and  powerful,  was  ruled  by  a  sovereign  whom  misfortune  and  age 
prevented  engaging  in  any  distant  military  enterprise ;  so  that  as  long 
as  Psammetichus  was  living  Babylon  had  comparatively  nothing  to 
fear  from  any  quarter,  and,  in  the  language  of  the  Jewish  prophet 
Isaiah,  could  "  give  herself  to  pleasure  and  dwell  carelessly." 

It  was  only  as  the  ally  of  Media  that  Babylon  was  obliged  to  exert 
herself  during  the  first  eighteen  years  of  her  empire,  being  bound  by 
treaty  to  aid  Cyaxares  in  his  wars  and  conquests  after  the  capture  and 
destruction  of  Nineveh,  the  Babylonian  contingents  on  these  occasions 
being  led  either  by  Nabopolassar  or  by  his  son,  the  crown-prince 
Nebuchadnezzar.  In  a  war  between  Media  and  Lydia,  as  the  armies 
of  these  two  hostile  nations  were  about  to  engage  in  battle,  an  eclipse 
of  the  sun  excited  the  superstitious  fears  of  both,  so  that  they  were 
disposed  to  reconciliation.  Thereupon  the  Babylonian  monarch  acted 
as  peacemaker.  Having  discovered  that  Syennesis  of  Cilicia,  the  lead- 
ing man  of  the  Lydian  side,  was  disposed  to  second  his  friendly  offices, 
Nabopolassar  proposed  the  holding  of  a  peace  conference.  The  result 
was  that  a  treaty  of  peace  and  friendship,  cemented  by  a  royal  inter- 
marriage, was  concluded  between  Media  and  Lydia ;  thus  giving  West- 
ern Asia  almost  half  a  century  of  peace,  after  almost  perpetual  warfare 
and  devastation. 

After  this  successful  attempt  at  mediation,  Nabopolassar  returned 
to  Babylon.  He  was  prevented  from  ending  his  last  years  in  peace 
by  the  warlike  attitude  of  Neko,  King  of  Egypt,  the  son  and  successor 
of  Psammetichus,  who  sought  to  wrest  Syria  and  Palestine  from  the 


His 

Alliance 

with 
Media. 


Destruc- 
tion of 

Nineveh 

and 
End  of 

Assyria. 

Nabopo- 
lassar, 
Founder 

of 

the  Baby- 
lonian 
Empire. 


His 

Peaceful 
Reign. 


Alliance 

with 

Media  and 
Lydia. 


Egyptian 

Invasion 

of 

Palestine 

and 
Victories 

over 

Judah. 


248 


CHALD^A,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Battle  of 
Carche- 

mish. 


Baby- 
lonian 
Invasion 

of 
Egypt. 

Nebu- 
chadnez- 
zar's 
Acces- 
sion. 


OldTesta- 

ment 
Author- 
ity. 


Babylonian  Empire.  In  B.  C.  608  the  Egyptian  king  led  an  army 
into  Palestine,  where  the  Jewish  king  Josiah,  in  fulfillment  of  his  duty 
as  vassal  monarch  to  the  King  of  Babylon,  had  assembled  an  army  at 
Megiddo  to  oppose  his  further  advance  in  the  territories  of  Nabopolas- 
sar.  Thereupon  Neko  sent  an  embassy  to  persuade  Josiah  that  he 
had  no  hostile  feelings  toward  the  Jews,  and  claiming  divine  approval 
of  his  enterprise.  But  Josiah,  loyal  to  his  suzerain,  remained  firm  in 
his  opposition  to  the  advance  of  the  invaders ;  whereupon  he  was  at- 
tacked and  defeated  at  Megiddo,  and  fled  mortally  wounded  to  Jeru- 
salem, where  he  died.  Neko  followed  up  his  victory  by  advancing 
through  Syria  to  the  Euphrates,  and  extended  his  authority  over  the 
whole  region  from  Egypt  on  the  south-west  to  the  "  Great  River  "  on 
the  north-east.  Returning  three  months  later,  Neko  dethroned  Jehoa- 
haz,  a  younger  son  of  Josiah,  whom  the  Jewish  people  had  made  king, 
and  bestowed  the  Jewish  crown  on  Jehoiakim,  his  elder  brother.  Dur- 
ing this  time  Neko  besieged  and  took  the  Philistine  city  of  Gaza. 

Three  years  later,  in  B.  C.  605,  Nabopolassar,  now  venerable  for  his 
age,  sent  an  army  under  his  son,  the  crown-prince  Nebuchadnezzar, 
against  the  conquering  hosts  of  the  Egyptian  king.  The  Hittite  city 
of  Carchemish,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Euphrates,  was  then  the  key 
of  Syria;  and  at  this  place  Nebuchadnezzar  thoroughly  defeated  and 
routed  the  Egyptians,  who  fled  in  dismay.  Nebuchadnezzar  rapidly 
reestablished  the  Babylonian  sway  over  Syria  and  Palestine,  received 
the  submission  of  Jehoiakim,  King  of  Judah,  restored  the  frontier  line, 
and  according  to  Berosus  invaded  Egypt  itself.  But  upon  receiving 
news  from  Babylon  of  his  father's  death,  Nebuchadnezzar  hastily  con- 
cluded a  peace  with  Neko,  and  speedily  returned  to  his  capital,  in  fear 
of  a  disputed  succession. 

NEBUCHADNEZZAR  had  no  cause  for  his  fears,  as  the  priests  had 
assumed  control  of  affairs  in  his  absence,  and  the  Chief  Priest,  or  Head 
of  the  Order,  had  kept  the  throne  vacant  for  him  until  his  return,  while 
no  pretender  disputed  his  claims.  Nebuchadnezzar  was  the  great  mon- 
arch of  the  Babylonian  Empire,  which  continued  but  eighty-seven 
years,  from  B.  C.  625  to  B.  C.  538,  and  which  for  almost  half  that 
period  was  ruled  by  him.  The  military  glory  of  this  empire  is  mostly 
attributable  to  this  renowned  king,  whose  character  and  genius  gave  it 
the  constructive  enterprise  which  was  its  essential  characteristic.  To 
Nebuchadnezzar  the  prominent  place  of  the  Babylonians  in  history  is 
almost  wholly  due.  Besides  being  an  able  general,  Nebuchadnezzar 
was  one  of  the  greatest  builders  of  antiquity. 

Our  knowledge  of  Nebuchadnezzar's  wars  is  almost  entirely  derived 
from  the  Old  Testament.  Therefore  we  are  only  informed  of  his  wars 
in  Palestine  and  its  immediate  vicinity,  as  related  by  the  Jewish  writ- 


THE    LATER    BABYLONIAN    EMPIRE.  249 

ers.  We  only  possess  a  full  account  of  his  wars  with  the  Jews,  and 
some  knowledge  of  his  campaigns  against  Egypt  and  Phoenicia,  though 
Berosus  says  he  warred  against  the  Arabs  and  conquered  a  part  of  their 
country. 

A  few  years  after  Nebuchadnezzar's  victory  over  Neko,  King  of  Revolt  ol 
Egypt,  troubles  once  more  distracted  Syria.     Tyre  headed  a  rebellion       *£™" 
in  Phoenicia,  while  Jehoiakim,  the  Jewish  king,  relying  upon  the  prom-     Judah. 
ised  aid  of  the  Egyptian  monarch,  renounced  his  allegiance  to  his 
Babylonian    suzerain.     Thereupon    Nebuchadnezzar,    in    his    seventh 
year,  B.  C.  598,  led  into  Palestine  an  expedition,  consisting  of  his  own 
subjects  and  his  Median  allies.     Polyhistor  says  this  army  numbered 
10,000    chariots,    120,000    cavalry    and    180,000    infantry.     Having 
invested  Tyre  and  found  that  city  too  strong  to  assail  with  success,     Siege  of 
Nebuchadnezzar  left  a  part  to  continue  the  siege,  while  he  himself         yre' 
marched  against  Jerusalem.     On  the  approach  of  the  Babylonian  king, 
Jehoiakim  submitted,  as  he  was  not  supported  by  his  Egyptian  allies; 
but  Nebuchadnezzar  put  him  to  death,  in  punishment  for  his  rebellion,     Jehoia- 
and  treated  his  body   with  indignity.      Says   the   prophet   Jeremiah :      ^^^ 
"  He  shall  be  buried  with  the  burial  of  an  ass,  drawn  and  cast  forth      Death. 
beyond  the  gates  of  Jerusalem,"  and  again,  "  His  dead  body  shall  be 
cast  out  in  the  day  to  the  heat  and  in  the  night  to  the  frost." 

Nebuchadnezzar  first  placed  Jehoiachin,  the  son  of  the  unfortunate  Captivity 
Jehoiakim,  upon  the  Jewish  throne.     The  new  Jewish  king,  a  mere  °  ^hin^ 
youth,  was  deposed  three  months  later  by  the  suspicious  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, and  carried  a  captive  to  Babylon ;  while  his  uncle,  Zedekiah,  a 
brother  of  Jehoiakim  and  Jehoahaz,  was  placed  upon  the  Jewish  throne. 
The  island  city  of  Tyre,  in  the  meantime,  withstood  a  siege  of  thirteen    Siege  of 
years  against  the  forces  of  Nebuchadnezzzar ;  during  which  Jerusalem 
perished  in  a  final  effort  for  independence. 

Zedekiah,  King  of  Judah,  remained  a  faithful  vassal  of  the  Baby-   Revolt  of 
Ionian  king  for  eight  years,  after  which  he  sought  an  alliance  with     King  Of ' 
Uaphris,  King  of  Egypt — the  Apries  of  Herodotus — in  order  to  strike      Judah. 
for  independence.     Says  the  prophet  Ezekial,  in  speaking  of  Zedekiah 
on  this  occasion :  "  He  rebelled  against  him  in  sending  his  ambassadors 
into  Egypt,  that  they  might  give  him  horses  and  much  people."     The 
Egyptian  king  looked  with  favor  upon  the  overture  of  Zedekiah,  who 
at  once  revolted  from  Babylon,  and  prepared  to  defend  himself  with 
vigor.     As  this  was  the  fourth  time  the  feeble  Jewish  kingdom  revolted 
against  him,  Nebuchadnezzar  resolved  to  crush  it  by  a  decisive  blow. 
"  He  and  all  his  host  "  came  against  Jerusalem,,  and,  after  conquering 
and  pillaging  the  open  country,  "  built  forts  "  and  laid  siege  to  the 
city.     Uaphris  led  an  army  from  Egypt  to  the  relief  of  his  beleaguered 
ally,  whereupon  the  Babylonian  army  raised  the  siege  and  took  the  field 


250 


CHALD^A,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Siege  and 
Capture 

of 

Jerusalem 
and  Tyre. 


Nebu- 
chadnez- 
zar's 
Invasions 

of 
Egypt. 


His  Great 

Tri- 
umphs. 


His 

Deporta- 
tions and 
Coloniza- 
tions. 


against  this  new  foe.  Josephus  says  that  the  Egyptians  were  de- 
feated in  battle,  but  according  to  the  prophet  Jeremiah  they  avoided 
an  engagement  by  retreating  to  their  own  land.  In  either  case  the 
attempted  relief  of  the  Jewish  capital  failed.  After  a  short  interval 
the  siege  was  renewed,  the  city  was  completely  blockaded,  and  after  a 
siege  and  investment  of  eighteen  months  Jerusalem  was  taken  by  the 
Babylonians,  B.  C.  586.  Before  the  city  fell,  Nebuchadnezzar  with- 
drew in  person  to  press  the  siege  of  Tyre,  which,  if  it  fell  after  its 
thirteen  years'  siege,  must  have  fallen  the  year  after  the  capture  of 
Jerusalem,  B.  C.  585. 

By  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  and  Tyre,  the  Babylonian  king  secured 
the  quiet  possession  of  Palestine  and  Phoenicia.  Four  years  after  the 
fall  of  Tyre,  according  to  Josephus,  Nebuchadnezzar  invaded  Egypt, 
put  its  king,  Uaphris,  the  friend  and  ally  of  Zedekiah,  to  death,  and 
bestowed  the  Egyptian  crown  upon  a  creature  of  his  own,  B.  C.  581. 
Herodotus,  however,  says  that  Uaphris  was  put  to  death  by  a  rebellious 
subject,  and  he  is  known  to  have  reigned  as  late  as  B.  C.  569.  But 
Nebuchadnezzar's  second  invasion  of  Egypt,  B.  C.  570,  ended  in  the 
deposition  of  Uaphris,  whose  successor,  Amasis,  was  a  mere  vassal  of 
the  Babylonian  king. 

Thus  Nebuchadnezzar  defeated  Neko,  recovered  Syria,  suppressed 
the  revolt  of  Judah,  reduced  Tyre  and  humbled  Egypt.  Megasthenes 
says  that  he  conquered  North  Africa,  from  which  he  invaded  Spain  and 
subdued  the  Iberians,  colonizing  his  Iberian  captives  on  the  shores  of 
the  Euxine  sea  in  the  region  between  Armenia  and  the  Caucasus. 
Nebuchadnezzar  was  thus  represented  as  reigning  over  an  empire  ex- 
tending from  the  Atlantic  ocean  on  the  west  to  the  Caspian  sea  on 
the  east,  and  from  the  Caucasus  on  the  north-east  to  the  great  Sahara 
on  the  south-west. 

Nebuchadnezzar's  military  successes  gave  him  that  great  command 
of  "  naked  human  strength  "  by  which  he  was  enabled  to  prosecute 
his  great  projects  for  beautifying  and  benefiting  his  kingdom  without 
unnecessarily  oppressing  his  own  people.  From  the  start  he  carried 
out  the  Assyrian  system  of  forcible  deportation  of  the  entire  popula- 
tions of  conquered  lands,  and  colonized  them  in  remote  portions  of 
his  dominions.  Multitudes  of  captives  taken  in  his  wars — Jews,  Egyp- 
tians, Phoenicians,  Syrians,  Ammonites,  Moabites  and  others — were 
settled  in  different  parts  of  Mesopotamia,  principally  about  Babylon. 
By  the  forced  labor  of  these  captives  the  great  works  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, which  were  the  chief  glory  of  the  Babylonian  Empire,  were 
erected. 

Abydenus  and  Eusebius  say  that  Nebuchadnezzar  built  the  great 
wall  of  Babylon,  seventy-five  feet  high,  and  thirty-two  feet  wide,  with 


THE    LATER    BABYLONIAN    EMPIRE. 


9,51 


a  circumference  of  three  hundred  and  sixty-five  stadia.  This  wall  was 
of  solid  brick  masonry,  the  Babylonian  bricks  being  about  a  foot  square 
and  from  three  to  four  inches  thick.  Nebuchadnezzar,  in  the  Standard 
Inscription,  only  claims  to  have  repaired  the  old  wall  of  the  city.  He 
erected  a  splendid  new  palace  in  the  vicinity  of  the  old  royal  residence. 
He  constructed  the  famous  "  Hanging  Gardens  "  to  delight  his  Median 
wife,  Amyitis,  the  daughter  of  Cyaxares.  He  repaired  and  beautified 
the  great  temple  of  Bel  at  Babylon;  and  all  the  inscribed  bricks  thus 
far  discovered  in  the  Babil  mound  bear  Nebuchadnezzar's  legend. 

Nebuchadnezzar  constructed  many  gigantic  public  works  of  great 
utility.  He  dug  the  immense  reservoir  at  Sippara,  which  was  said  to 
have  been  one  hundred  and  forty  miles  in  circumference,  and  one  hun- 
dred and  eighty  feet  deep,  providing  it  with  flood-gates,  through  which 
its  waters  might  be  drawn  off  for  purposes  of  irrigation.  He  con- 
structed many  canals,  among  which  was  the  Nahr  Malcha,  or  "  Royal 
River,"  a  wide  and  deep  channel  connecting  the  Euphrates  and  the 
Tigris.  He  built  quays  and  breakwaters  along  the  shores  of  the  Per- 
sian Gulf,  and  founded  the  city  of  Diridotis,  or  Teredon,  near  that 
gulf.  According  to  Nebuchadnezzar's  own  inscriptions,  or  to  existing 
remains,  he  likewise  erected  the  Birs-i-Nimrud,  or  great  temple  of 
Nebo,  at  Borsippa ;  constructed  a  vast  reservoir  in  Babylon  itself,  called 
the  Yapur-Shapu,  and  a  brick  embankment  along  the  course  of  the 
Tigris,  near  Bagdad,  the  bricks  of  which  bear  his  name  and  have 
remained  undisturbed ;  and  built  many  temples,  walls  and  other  public 
buildings  at  Cutha,  Sippara,  Borsippa,  Babylon,  Chilmad,  Bit-Digla 
and  other  places.  This  indefatigable  king  either  rebuilt  or  repaired 
nearly  all  the  Babylonian  cities  and  temples.  No  less  than  a  hundred 
sites  in  the  vicinity  of  Babylon  testify,  by  inscribed  bricks  bearing  his 
legend,  to  his  wonderful  activity  and  energy. 

Nebuchadnezzar  is  also  believed  to  have  constructed  the  canal  called 
by  the  Arabs  the  Kerek  Saideh,  or  canal  of  Sai'deh,  and  ascribed  by 
them  to  a  wife  of  Nebuchadnezzar.  This  canal,  four  hundred  miles 
long,  extended  from  Hit,  on  the  Euphrates,  along  the  extreme  western 
edge  of  the  alluvium  close  to  the  Arabian  frontier,  to  the  head  of  the 
Bubian  creek,  about  twenty  miles  west  of  the  Shat-el-Arab.  Traces 
of  this  canal  yet  remaining  attest  the  magnitude  of  this  great  work. 
The  Pallacopas,  or  canal  of  Opa  (Palga  Opa),  which  flowed  from  the 
Euphrates  at  Sippara  (now  Mosaib)  to  a  great  lake  in  the  vicinity 
of  Borsippa,  whence  the  neighboring  lands  were  irrigated,  is  also  be- 
lieved to  have  been  constructed  by  this  great  monarch.  It  was  an  old 
canal,  out  of  repair,  in  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great ;  and  is  called 
the  Nahr  Abba  by  the  Arabs,  who  consider  it  the  oldest  canal  in  the 

country. 

1—19 


Walls 

and 

"Hanging 
Gardens" 

of 
Babylon. 


Nebu- 
chadnez- 
zar's 

Other 
Gigantic 

Public 

Works. 


Two 

Great 

Canals. 


252 


CHAUXEA,   ASSYRIA,   BABYLONIA. 


Nebu- 
chadnez- 
zar's 
Brilliant 

Court. 


His 

Wavering 
Religion. 


His 

Angry 
Outbursts 
and  Occa- 
sional 
Piety. 


His 
Cruel 
Deeds. 


The  Old  Testament  gives  us  some  knowledge  of  Nebuchadnezzar's 
private  life  and  personal  character.  The  Book  of  Daniel  represents 
the  great  monarch  at  the  head  of  a  most  magnificent  court ;  surrounded 
with  "princes,  governors,  captains,  judges,  treasurers,  councilors,  and 
sheriffs  " ;  waited  upon  by  carefully-chosen  eunuchs,  "  well-favored  " 
and  educated  with  care ;  attended,  at  his  desire,  by  a  host  of  astrolo- 
gers and  other  "  wise  men,"  who  sought  to  reveal  to  him  the  divine 
will.  He  was  an  absolute  monarch,  having  the  lives  and  properties  of 
his  subjects,  from  the  highest  to  the  lowest,  at  his  disposal;  and  dis- 
pensing all  offices  at  his  pleasure.  He  could  elevate  a  foreigner  to  a 
second  place  in  the  kingdom,  and  even  place  him  over  the  whole  priest- 
hood. His  immense  wealth  is  proven  by  the  fact  that  he  made  an  im- 
age or  obelisk  of  pure  gold,  ninety  feet  high  and  nine  feet  wide. 

This  renowned  Babylonian  monarch  wavered  in  his  religion,  some- 
times acknowledging  the  Jehovah  of  the  Jews  as  the  only  real  deity, 
sometimes  relapsing  into  the  idolatrous  Babylonian  polytheism,  and 
forcing  his  subjects  to  do  the  same.  But  his  polytheism  was  charac- 
terized by  a  special  devotion  to  a  particular  deity,  whom  he  designates 
emphatically  as  "  his  god."  Nebuchadnezzar's  inscriptions  clearly 
show  that  his  favorite  god  was  Merodach. 

Nebuchadnezzar  was  hasty  and  violent  in  temper,  but  not  obstinate. 
His  fierce  resolves  were  taken  suddenly  and  repented  of  quickly.  He 
could  occasionally  give  way  to  outbursts  of  gratitude  and  devotion. 
He  was  as  vainglorious  as  Orientals  generally,  but  could  bow  in  hu- 
miliation before  the  divine  castigation.  He  often  showed  a  spirit  of 
sincere  piety,  self-condemnation  and  self-abasement,  as  the  following 
from  the  Book  of  Daniel  clearly  proves :  "  I  blessed  the  Most  High, 
and  I  praised  and  honored  Him  that  liveth  forever,  Whose  dominion 
is  an  everlasting  dominion,  and  His  kingdom  is  from  generation  to 
generation;  and  ah1  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth  are  reputed  as  noth- 
ing, and  He  doeth  according  to  His  will  in  the  army  of  heaven,  and 
among  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth;  and  none  can  stay  His  hand,  or 
say  unto  Him,  What  doest  Thou?  Now  I,  Nebuchadnezzar,  praise 
and  extol  and  honor  the  King  of  heaven,  Whose  works  are  truth,  and 
His  ways  j  udgment ;  and  those  that  walk  in  pride  He  is  able  to  abase." 

Another  Jewish  prophet,  Jeremiah,  gives  a  darker  shade  to  the  char- 
acter of  the  illustrious  Babylonian  monarch.  This  writer  tells  us  that 
Nebuchadnezzar  executed  Jehoiakim  and  treated  his  body  with  indig- 
nity, murdered  Zedekiah's  sons  before  his  eyes,  put  out  the  eyes  of 
Zedekiah  himself,  and  kept  Zedekiah  and  Jehoiachin  in  prolonged  im- 
prisonment. These  acts  of  barbarous  cruelty  imply  in  the  great  Baby- 
lonian king  a  disposition  as  ferocious  as  that  of  Sargon  or  Asshur- 
bani-pal. 


THE    LATER    BABYLONIAN    EMPIRE. 


253 


Berosus  informs  us  that  Nebuchadnezzar  was  devotedly  attached  to 
his  Median  wife,  Amyitis,  whom  his  father  had  selected  for  him  for 
reasons  of  state.  Solely  to  please  her,  he  erected  the  celebrated 
"  Hanging  Gardens  "  at  Babylon.  The  rocks  and  trees  of  this  de- 
lightful artificial  Paradise,  where  art  strove  to  rival  nature,  were  de- 
signed to  imitate  the  beautiful  mountain  scenery  of  Media. 

In  his  later  days  Nebuchadnezzar  dreamed  a  strange  dream,  the 
meaning  of  which  was  interpreted  to  him  by  the  Jewish  prophet  Dan- 
iel, who,  though  carried  into  the  Babylonian  captivity  with  his  nation, 
had  arrived  at  high  honors  under  the  Babylonian  king.  Daniel  told 
the  king  that  his  dream  portended  that  he  would  for  seven  years  be  a 
victim  to  a  strange  and  rare  kind  of  madness.  A  victim  to  this  mal- 
ady, called  Lycanthropy,  imagines  himself  a  beast,  does  not  talk,  re- 
jects the  usual  human  food,  and  sometimes  loses  the  erect  attitude  and 
walks  on  hands  and  feet.  Within  a  year  of  the  warning,  Nebuchad- 
nezzar was  stricken  in  the  very  hour  in  which  he  had  exclaimed  in  his 
pride :  "  Is  not  this  great  Babylon,  that  I  have  built  for  the  house  of 
the  kingdom  by  the  might  of  my  power,  and  for  the  honor  of  my 
majesty!"  The  great  monarch  became  a  helpless  and  wretched  mad- 
man. He  lived  in  the  open  air  day  and  night,  "  and  did  eat  grass  as 
oxen,"  and  went  naked  "  till  his  hairs  were  grown  like  eagles'  feathers, 
and  his  nails  like  birds'  claws."  After  suffering  thus  for  seven  years, 
Nebuchadnezzar  regained  his  reason,  and  his  recovery  was  hailed  with 
rejoicing  by  his  court.  His  councilors  and  lords  greeted  his  presence. 
He  again  resumed  the  government  of  his  empire,  issued  his  proclama- 
tions, and  discharged  all  his  royal  duties.  He  had  now  reached  old 
age,  "  but  '  the  glory  of  his  kingdom,'  his  *  honor  and  brightness '  re- 
turned " ;  "  his  last  days  were  as  brilliant  as  his  first ;  his  sun  set  in  an 
unclouded  sky,  shorn  of  none  of  the  rays  that  had  given  splendor  to 
its  noonday."  Nebuchadnezzar  died  in  B.  C.  561,  in  the  forty-fourth 
year  of  his  reign,  when  almost  eighty  years  old. 

Nebuchadnezzar  was  succeeded  by  his  son  EVIL-MERODACH,  of  whose 
short  reign  of  two  years  but  very  little  is  known.  He  seemed  disposed 
to  favor  the  Jews.  Upon  his  accession,  he  released  Jehoiachin  from 
his  thirty-five  years'  imprisonment,  and  treated  him  with  kindness  and 
respect,  recognizing  his  royal  rank  and  giving  him  precedence  over 
all  the  captive  kings  residing  at  Babylon.  Josephus  says  that  he  actu- 
ally accepted  Jehoiachin  as  one  of  his  most  intimate  friends.  After 
Evil-Merodach  had  occupied  the  Babylonian  throne  but  two  years  he 
was  accused  of  lawlessness  and  intemperance,  a  conspiracy  was  formed 
against  him,  his  own  brother-in-law,  Neriglissar,  heading  the  malcon- 
tents ;  and  Evil-Merodach  lost  both  crown  and  life,  B.  C.  559. 


Devotion 

to  His 

Wife 

Amyitis. 


Nebu- 
chadnez- 
zar's 
Dream 

and 

Daniel's 
Interpre- 
tation 
Fulfilled. 


Nebu- 
chadnez- 
zar's 
Madness, 
Recovery 

and 
Death. 


Evil-Me- 
rodach. 

His 

Release  of 
Jehoia- 
chin. 


His 
Over- 
throw and 
Death. 


CHALDJEA,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 

Neriglis-  NEBJGIJSSAR  was  at  once  recognized  as  King  of  Babylon.  His  real 
sar>  name,  as  seen  on  his  bricks,  was  Nergal-sar-uzur ;  and  he  is  believed 
to  have  been  the  "  Nergal-shar-ezer,  Rag-Mag,"  mentioned  by  the  Jew- 
ish prophet  Jeremiah,  and  who  held  an  important  office  among  the 
Babylonian  nobles  left  to  press  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  when  Nebu- 
chadnezzar retired  to  Riblah.  It  is  known  that  the  king  bore  the  office 
of  Rag-Mag,  and  that  title  is  also  upon  his  bricks.  Neriglissar  styled 
himself  the  son  of  Bel-sum-iskun,  "  king  of  Babylon  " — a  sovereign 
whose  name  is  not  mentioned  by  the  Canon  of  Ptolemy,  but  who  was 
perhaps  a  chieftain  who  took  the  royal  title  during  the  troubles  pre- 
ceding the  fall  of  the  Assyrian  Empire.  Neriglissar  reigned  only 
three  years  and  four  months,  and  was  engaged  chiefly  in  the  erection 
His  Great  of  the  Western  Palace  at  Babylon,  an  immense  edifice  at  one  corner 
Palace.  Qf  ^  fortifje(}  enclosure,  directly  opposite  the  old  palace,  and  abutting 
on  the  Euphrates.  Diodorus  described  this  structure  as  most  magnifi- 
cent, being  elaborately  ornamented  with  painting  and  sculpture  in  the 
best  style  of  Babylonian  art,  though  it  may  have  been  smaller  than  the 
ancient  royal  residence  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river. 

Laboroso-        Neriglissar  died  U.  C.  556,  after  the  short  reign  mentioned,  and  was 
archod.      succeeded  by  his  son,  LABOROSOARCHOD,  so  called  by  Berosus  and  the 
Canon  of  Ptolemy.     This  monarch,  a  mere  youth,  only  wore  the  Baby- 
lonian crown  a  few  months,  when  he  was  accused  of  showing  many  signs 
His        of  a  bad  disposition,  and  was  deposed  and  put  to  death,  B.  C.  555 ;  and 
throw  and   with  him  ended  the  dynasty  of  Nabopolassar,  which  had  occupied  the 

Death.      Babylonian  throne  seventy  years,  from  B.  C.  625  to  B.  C.  555. 
Accession         NABONADIUS,  so  called  by  the  Canon  of  Ptolemy,  and  whom  the  con- 
„  °  spirators  chose  from  among  their  own  number  to  succeed  Laboroso- 

dius.       archod,  was  not  related  to  his  predecessor.     He  was  called  Nabonnedus 
by  Berosus.     Thus  Nabonadius,  like  Neriglissar,  was  a  usurper;  and, 
like  his  father,  held  the  important  office  of  Rag-Mag,  as  on  his  bricks 
and    cylinders    he    styled    himself    "  Nabonidus,    the    son    of    Nabu- 
*  *  -dirba,  the  Rag-Mag."     To  secure  his  usurped  throne,  Nabo- 
nadius married  a  princess  of  the  royal  house  of  Nabopolassar. 
Cyrus  the        Soon  after  his  accession,  in  B.  C.  555,  Nabonadius  received  an  em- 
Persiiu      bassy  from  the  remote  North-west.     Three  years  before,  in  B.  C.  558 
— during   the    reign    of   Neriglissar   at    Babylon — Cyrus    the    Great 
founded  the  Medo-Persian  Empire  by  deposing  the  Median  king  Asty- 
ages  and  transferring  the  supremacy  of  the  Aryan  race  from  the  Medes 
to  the  Persians.     Cyrus  at  once  entered  upon  a  career  of  conquest 
which  eventually  brought  all  of  Western  Asia  under  the  Medo-Persian 
Alliance     dominion. 

lonhtand        Fearing  the  rising  power  of  Persia  in  the  East,  Lydian  ambassadors 
Lydia.      were  sent  to  Babylon  in  B.  C.  555,  the  very  year  in  which  Nabonadius 


THE   LATER    BABYLONIAN    EMPIRE. 


255 


ascended  the  Babylonian  throne,  proposing  an  alliance  against  the  new 
power  which  threatened  the  existence  of  the  other  Oriental  monarchies 
of  the  time.  Nabonadius  decided  to  unite  in  the  proposed  offensive 
and  defensive  alliance  with  Lydia  and  Egypt  to  check  the  growing 
power  of  his  new  eastern  neighbor. 

Aware  that  he  thus  provoked  the  hostility  of  a  powerful  foe  by  this  Fortifica- 
decisive  course,  and  not  knowing  how  soon  he  might  be  obliged  to  de- 
fend  his  kingdom  against  the  whole  force  of  Persia,  Nabonadius  at  once 
began  to  strengthen  Babylon.  Herodotus  ascribed  these  defensive 
works  to  Nitocris,  a  queen  whom  he  calls  the  mother  of  Nabonadius; 
but  Berosus  says  that  they  were  erected  by  Nabonadius  himself.  These 
works  consisted  partly  of  defenses  within  the  city,  intended  to  secure  it 
against  an  enemy  who  should  enter  it  by  the  river,  partly  of  hydraulic 
works  designed  to  obstruct  the  advance  of  an  army  by  the  usual  route. 
The  river  had  thus  far  flowed  in  its  natural  channel  through  the  middle 
of  the  city;  but  Nabonadius  confined  the  stream  by  a  brick  embank- 
ment extended  the  whole  way  along  both  banks,  after  which  he  erected 
on  the  top  of  the  embankment  a  high  wall,  pierced  at  intervals  by 
gateways,  in  which  were  set  gates  of  bronze.  He  also  constructed 
cuttings,  reservoirs  and  sluices  at  some  distance  from  Babylon  towards 
the  north,  designed  to  obstruct  the  march  of  a  hostile  army.  Xeno- 
phon  likewise  spoke  of  a  rampart  —  known  as  the  "  Median  Wall  "  — 
extending  across  the  tract  between  the  two  rivers  —  a  vast  barrier  a 
hundred  feet  high  and  twenty  feet  thick  —  intended  to  be  insurmount- 
able by  an  unskillful  enemy,  but  this  is  generally  doubted  by  modern 
writers. 

Nabonadius  was  permitted  to  complete  his  fortification  of  Babylon   Conquest 
unmolested;  but  his  rash  ally,   Croesus,  the  wealthy  King  of  Lydia,  b°    Qyr|fs 
rushed  impetuously  into  a  war  with  Persia  without  asking  the  assist-  the  Great. 
ance  of  the  Babylonian  monarch.     Cyrus  promptly  attacked  Croesus 
by  invading  Lydia,  defeated  him  in  the  battle  of  Pteria,  and  besieged 
and  captured   Sardis,  the  Lydian   capital,  before   Nabonadius   could 
render  his  impulsive  ally  any  aid.     For  fourteen  years  Babylon  re- 
mained unmenaced  by  the  Persian  king. 

Finally,  in  B.  C.  539,  Nabonadius  received  tidings  that  Cyrus  the 
Great  was  marching  from  Ecbatana,  the  Median  capital,  in  the  direc- 
tion  of  Babylon  ;  but  as  his  defenses  were  completed  and  the  city  amply  Babylon. 
provisioned,  the  Babylonian  monarch  felt  perfectly  secure  behind  the 
walls  of  his  capital.  Herodotus  says  that  the  Persian  invader  paused 
half-way  between  Ecbatana  and  Babylon,  because  one  of  the  sacred 
white  horses  which  drew  the  chariot  of  Ormazd  had  been  drowned  in 
crossing  a  river.  Declaring  that  he  would  punish  the  insolent  stream, 
Cyrus  employed  his  soldiers  during  the  whole  summer  and  autumn  of 


Cyrus 


256 


CHALD^EA,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


His 
Victory 

over 
Nabona- 

dius. 


Siege  of 
Babylon 
and  Bel- 
shazzar's 

Feast. 


Capture 

of 

Babylon 

and  Death 

of  Bel- 

shazzar. 


B.  C.  539  in  dispersing  the  waters  of  the  stream  into  three  hundred 
and  sixty  channels. 

Cyrus  renewed  his  march  upon  Babylon  in  the  spring  of  B.  C.  538, 
crossing  the  Tigris  without  opposition  and  soon  appearing  before 
Babylon.  The  Babylonian  army  under  Nabonadius  himself  was  here 
drawn  up  to  oppose  him.  In  the  battle  which  ensued  the  Babylonian 
king  was  thoroughly  defeated,  the  greater  part  of  his  army  seeking 
refuge  inside  the  walls  of  the  capital,  while  he  himself  with  a  small 
body  of  troops  fled  for  safety  into  the  important  city  of  Borsippa,  a 
short  distance  south-west  from  Babylon. 

In  the  meantime,  the  Babylonian  crown-prince,  Belshazzar,  or  Bel- 
shar-uzur,  the  son  of  Nabonadius,  and  the  grandson  of  the  illustrious 
Nebuchadnezzar — supported  by  the  counsels  of  his  mother  and  the 
officers  of  the  court — for  a  time  successfully  resisted  all  the  Persian 
assaults,  so  that  Cyrus,  almost  reduced  to  despair,  resorted  to  a  strata- 
gem whose  failure  might  have  cost  him  dear.  Leaving  a  corps  of 
observation  behind  him,  Cyrus,  with  the  bulk  of  his  army,  marched  up 
the  course  of  the  Euphrates  for  some  distance,  and  dug  a  new  chan- 
nel, or  channels,  from  the  river,  by  means  of  which  a  part  of  its  water 
could  be  drawn  off.  Cyrus  awaited  the  arrival  of  a  certain  festival 
at  Babylon,  when  the  entire  Babylonian  population  would  be  engaged 
in  drinking  and  revelry.  The  festival  on  this  occasion  was  held  with 
more  than  usual  pomp  and  magnificence,  and  Belshazzar  gave  himself 
up  entirely  to  the  delights  of  the  season,  entertaining  a  thousand  dig- 
nitaries in  his  palace.  The  rest  of  the  population  was  occupied  in 
feasting  and  dancing;  and  in  the  midst  of  drunken  riot  and  mad  ex- 
citement the  siege  of  the  city  was  wholly  forgotten,  and  the  usual 
precautions  were  neglected.  The  Babylonians  abandoned  themselves 
for  the  night  to  orgies  characterized  by  a  strange  mingling  of  religious 
frenzy  and  drunken  excess. 

While  this  was  going  on  inside  the  city  during  this  eventful  night, 
the  Persians  were  silently  watching  outside  at  the  two  points  where 
the  Euphrates  entered  and  left  the  walls.  They  anxiously  and  cau- 
tiously watched  the  gradual  sinking  of  the  river-bed,  to  discover  if 
their  silent  movements  would  be  observed  and  cause  alarm.  Had  they 
entered  the  river  channel  to  find  the  river-walls  manned  and  the  river- 
gates  locked  fast  they  would  have  been  caught  in  a  trap.  Flanked 
on  both  sides  by  an  enemy  they  could  neither  see  nor  reach  they  would 
have  been  caught  at  a  terrible  disadvantage.  In  such  a  case  they 
would  have  been  entirely  cut  to  pieces  without  being  able  to  make  any 
effectual  resistance,  or  to  escape  from  their  perilous  position.  But 
as  they  observed  no  signs  of  alarm,  but  only  the  shouts  of  riotous 
revelry,  on  the  part  of  the  unsuspecting  populace,  the  Persians  grew 


THE    LATER    BABYLONIAN    EMPIRE. 


257 


bolder,  and,  when  the  revelry  was  at  its  height,  emerged  from  the  deep 
river-bed  and  seized  the  two  undefended  gateways.  The  frightened 
Babylonians  at  once  raised  a  war-shout  and  spread  the  alarm.  Swift 
runners  hurried  off  to  "  show  the  King  of  Babylon  that  his  city  was 
taken  at  one  end  "  ;  so  says  the  Book  of  Jeremiah.  In  the  darkness 
and  confusion  of  the  night  a  frightful  massacre  occurred,  says  Xeno- 
phon.  The  drunken  revelers  were  unable  to  resist.  Belshazzar,  com- 
pletely surprised  and  utterly  helpless  "  at  the  awful  handwriting  upon 
the  wall,"  which  appeared  at  this  time,  was  warned  of  his  danger  when 
too  late,  and  could  offer  no  check  to  the  progress  of  the  assailants, 
who  had  the  paralyzed  populace  completely  at  their  mercy.  A  band 
of  Persians  forced  their  way  into  the  royal  palace  and  slew  the  aston- 
ished Belshazzar  on  the  scene  of  his  sacrilegious  revelry.  Such  is  the 
testimony  of  Herodotus  and  Xenophon,  of  Daniel  and  Jeremiah. 
Says  the  Book  of  Daniel  :  "  In  that  night  was  Belshazzar  slain."  The 
triumphant  Persians  destroyed  right  and  left  with  fire  and  sword. 
The  dawn  found  Cyrus  undisputed  master  of  the  mighty  Babylon. 

After  ordering  the  fortifications  of  Babylon  to  be  dismantled,  Cyrus  Captivity 
marched  against  Nabonadius  at  Borsippa;  but,  seeing  the  folly  of 
resistance,  the  unfortunate  Nabonadius  surrendered  himself  upon  the 
approach  of  his  triumphant  foe.  Cyrus  kindly  treated  the  captive 
king,  sparing  his  life,  and,  according  to  Abydenus,  conferring  on  him 
the  government  of  the  important  province  of  Carmania. 

Thus   fell  the  mighty   Babylonian   Empire,   after  an  existence  of     End  of 
eighty-seven  years,  from  B.  C.  625  to  B.  C.  538.     For  half  a  century  ^0S£? 
did  Babylon,  along  with  Media  and  Lydia,  control  the  destinies  of    Empire. 
Western  Asia.     The  Babylonian  dominions  then  became  a  part  of  the 
great  Medo-Persian  Empire,  and  the  great  city  which  had  played  so 
important  a  part  in  Oriental  history  for  centuries  became  the  winter 
capital  of  the  Medo-Persian  kings. 

KINGS  OF  BABYLON. 


dius. 


CONTE  MPORAEY 

B.  C. 

KINGS. 

KINGS  OF 

REMARKABLE  EVENTS. 

ASSYRIA. 

1300 

Assyrian  Dynasty.... 

Tiglathi-Nin   I  

*        #        * 

The  Assyrians  conquer  Babylon. 

Bel-kudur-uzur. 

iXin-pala-zira. 

Asshur-dayan  I. 

Mutaggil-Nebo. 

1150 
1130 
1110 

Nebuchadnezzar  I  .... 
Merodach-iddin-akhi  . 
Merodach-shapik-ziri  . 

Asshur-ris-ilim   .  .  . 
Tiglath-Pileser  I.. 
Asshur-bil-kala  .  .  . 

1  Wars    between    Assyria    and 
Babylon. 

Shamas-Vul  I. 

»         *         * 

*        *        * 

voi.  1.— 17 


258 


CHALD^A,   ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


880 
850 
820 

775 
752 

747 

745 
733 
731 
726 
721 
713(?) 

709 
704 
703 

702 
699 

696(?) 

694(?) 
693 
692 

688 
680 

667 
647 

626 
625 
605 

561 

559 
556 
555 
538 

Tsibir  (Deboras)  
*        *        » 

*        *        * 

Asshur-Mazur  .... 

*        #        * 

Asshur-dayan  II. 
Vul-lush  II. 
Tiglathi-Nin  II. 
Asshur-izir-pal  .  .  . 

Shalmaneser  II.... 

Shamas-Vul  II.... 
Vul-lush  III. 
Shalmaneser  III. 
Asshur-dayan    III. 

Asshur-lush. 

Babylon  in  alliance  with  Egypt. 
Takes  territory  from  Assyria. 

Assyria  recovers  her  lost  terri- 
tory. 
Civil  war  in  Babylon.    Assyria 
helps  the  legitimate  king. 
Babylon  conquered.   Passes  un- 
der Assyria. 

Babylon  reestablishes  her  inde- 
pendence. 

Embassy  of  Merodach-Baladan 
to  Hezekiah. 
Babylon  conquered  by  Sargon. 
Babylon  revolts. 

Sennacherib  conquers  Babylon. 

Babylon    revolts.     Revolt    put 
down. 
Ditto. 
Troubles    in    Babylon.     Inter- 
regnum of  eight  years,  coin- 
ciding with  last  eight  years 
of  Sennacherib. 
Babylon    recovered    by    Esar- 
haddon. 
Babylon  revolts  and  again  re- 
turns to  allegiance. 

Assyrian  Empire  destroyed. 
Nebuchadnezzar      carries      the 
Jews  into  captivity. 

Babylon   taken   by    Cyrus   the 
Great  of  Persia. 

Merodach-sum-adin  .  . 

Merodach-bela  tzu-ikbi 

*        *        * 

Pul  (?) 

Tiglath-Pileser   II. 

Shalmaneser  IV. 
Sargon. 

Chinzinus  and  Porus.. 
Elulaeus    

Merodach-Baladan  ... 

Arceanus  (  Sargon)  .  .  . 
I  nterregnum 

Sennacherib  

Hagisa    ") 

Merodach-Bala- 
dan   (restored)      J 
Belibus    (viceroy)  .... 
Assaranadius       (vice- 

Regibelus   (viceroy)  .  . 
Mesesimordachus 

Esar-haddon  

Esar-haddon     ... 

Saos-duchinus      (vice- 
roy^  . 

Asshur-bani-pal  .  . 
Asshur-cmid-ilin. 

Cinneladanus   (or  As- 
shur-bani-pal)  
Nebo-sum-iskun   (  ?)  .  . 

1. 

Laborosoarchod    
Nabonadius   

Conquest   of   Babylon 
by  Cyrus  the  Great 
of  Persia.  

f 

BABYLONIAN   CIVILIZATION. 


259 


SECTION  IX.— BABYLONIAN   CIVILIZATION. 

SAYS  Professor  Rawlinson :  "  In  its  general  character  the  Baby- 
lonian Empire  was  little  more  than  a  reproduction  of  the  Assyrian. 
The  same  loose  organization  of  the  provinces  under  native  kings  rather 
than  satraps  almost  universally  prevailed,  with  the  same  duties  on  the 
part  of  suzerain  and  subjects,  and  the  same  results  of  ever-recurring 
revolt  and  re-conquest.  Similar  means  were  employed  under  both  em- 
pires to  check  and  discourage  rebellion — mutilations  and  executions  of 
chiefs,  pillage  of  the  rebellious  region,  and  wholesale  deportation  of 
its  population.  Babylon,  equally  with  Assyria,  failed  to  win  the  affec- 
tions of  the  subject  nations,  and,  as  a  natural  result,  received  no  help 
from  them  in  her  hour  of  need.  Her  system  was  to  exhaust  and  op- 
press the  conquered  races  for  the  supposed  benefit  of  the  conquerors, 
and  to  impoverish  the  provinces  for  the  adornment  and  enrichment  of 
the  capital.  The  wisest  of  her  monarchs  thought  it  enough  to  con- 
struct works  of  public  utility  in  Babylonia  proper,  leaving  the  de- 
pendent countries  to  themselves,  and  doing  nothing  to  develop  their 
resources.  This  selfish  system  was,  like  most  selfishness,  short-sighted; 
it  alienated  those  whom  it  would  have  been  true  policy  to  conciliate  and 
win.  When  the  time  of  peril  came,  the  subject  nations  were  no  source 
of  strength  to  the  menaced  empire.  On  the  contrary,  it  would  seem 
that  some  even  turned  against  her  and  made  common  cause  with  the 
assailants. 

"  Babylonian  civilization  differed  in  many  respects  from  Assyrian, 
to  which  however  it  approached  more  nearly  than  to  any  other  known 
type.  Its  advantages  over  Assyrian  were  in  its  greater  originality, 
its  superior  literary  character,  and  its  comparative  width  and  flexibil- 
ity. Babylonia  seems  to  have  been  the  source  from  which  Assyria  drew 
her  learning,  such  as  it  was,  her  architecture,  the  main  ideas  of  her 
mimetic  art,  her  religious  notions,  her  legal  forms,  and  a  vast  number 
of  her  customs  and  usages.  But  Babylonia  herself,  so  far  as  we  know, 
drew  her  stores  from  no  foreign  country.  Hers  was  apparently  the 
genius  which  excogitated  an  alphabet — worked  out  the  simpler  prob- 
lems of  arithmetic — invented  implements  for  measuring  the  lapse  of 
time — conceived  the  idea  of  raising  enormous  structures  with  the  poor- 
est of  all  materials,  clay — discovered  the  art  of  polishing,  boring,  and 
engraving  gems — reproduced  with  truthfulness  the  outlines  of  human 
and  animal  forms — attained  to  high  perfection  in  textile  fabrics — 
studied  with  success  the  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies — conceived  of 
grammar  as  a  science — elaborated  a  system  of  law — saw  the  value  of 
an  exact  chronology — in  almost  every  branch  of  science  made  a  be- 


Rawlin- 
son's 
State- 
ment. 


The 
Same 

Con- 
tinued. 


260 


CHALD^A,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Chaldaean 
Descent 
of  the 
Later 
Baby- 
lonians. 


New 

Semitic 

Elements. 


Fusion  of 
Semitic, 
Hamitic 

and 

Turanian 
Elements. 


Final 
Semitic 
Prepon- 
derance. 


ginning,  thus  rendering  it  comparatively  easy  for  other  nations  to 
proceed  with  the  superstructure.  To  Babylonia,  far  more  than  to 
Egypt,  we  owe  the  art  and  learning  of  the  Greeks.  It  was  from  the 
East,  not  from  Egypt,  that  Greece  derived  her  architecture,  her  sculp- 
ture, her  science,  her  philosophy,  her  mathematical  knowledge — in  a 
word,  her  intellectual  life.  And  Babylon  was  the  source  to  which  the 
entire  stream  of  Eastern  civilization  may  be  traced.  It  is  scarcely 
too  much  to  say  that,  but  for  Babylon,  real  civilization  might  not  even 
yet  have  dawned  upon  the  earth.  Mankind  might  never  have  ad- 
vanced beyond  that  spurious  and  false  form  of  it  which  in  Egypt, 
India,  China,  Japan,  Mexico,  and  Peru,  contented  the  aspirations  of 
the  species." 

The  later  Babylonians  were  a  mixed  race,  as  were  the  early  Chal- 
daeans,  from  whom  they  were  mainly  descended.  The  Chaldseans  of 
the  First  Empire  were  chiefly  a  mixed  Hamitic,  or  Cushite,  and  Tura- 
nian race,  with  a  slight  intermingling  of  Semitic  and  Aryan  elements. 
But  the  Babylonians  of  the  later  period — called  Chaldasans  by  the 
Hebrew  prophets — were  still  more  of  a  composite  race,  on  account  of 
the  colonization  of  foreigners  in  Babylonia  in  accordance  with  the 
policy  of  the  Assyrian  kings,  and  because  of  the  influence  exerted  upon 
them  by  their  Assyrian  conquerors.  The  conquest  of  Chaldaea  by  the 
Arabian  dynasty  B.  C.  1546,  and  the  Assyrian  conquest  of  the  same 
country  B.  C.  1300,  establishing  an  Assyrian  royal  race  upon  the 
Chaldaean  throne,  tended  to  the  fusion  of  new  Semitic  elements  with 
the  old  Chaldaean  population,  as  both  the  Arabs  and  the  Assyrians  were 
prominent  branches  of  the  Semitic  race,  which  played  so  important  a 
part  in  ancient  history. 

Semitic  dynasties  reigning  in  Chaldaea  would  naturally  tend  to  the 
introduction  of  new  Semitic  blood  into  that  old  land,  and  bring  along 
Semitic  customs  and  ideas,  and  causing  the  old  Turano- Cushite  lan- 
guage of  ancient  Chaldaea  to  give  way  to  a  Semitic  tongue.  The  orig- 
inal Chaldaean  population  gradually  became  intermingled  with  the  new 
Semitic  settlers,  thus  tending  to  the  production  of  a  nation  composed 
about  equally  of  Semitic,  Turanian  and  Cushite,  or  Hamitic  elements. 
The  colonizations  of  the  Sargonid  dynasty  brought,  in  addition,  small 
proportions  of  other  foreign  elements,  so  that  the  later  Babylonians 
could  more  appropriately  be  called  a  "  mingled  people "  than  any 
other  ancient  nation  of  Western  Asia.  By  the  time  of  the  Later  Em- 
pire the  Babylonians  had  become  thoroughly  Semitized,  as  the  vitality 
and  energy  of  the  Semitic  elements  fused  in  the  population  predomi- 
nated over  the  original  Cushite  and  Turanian  elements ;  so  that  the 
later  Babylonians  were  scarcely  distinguishable  from  their  northern 
neighbors,  the.  Assyrians.  The  Greek  writers  seem  to  have  regarded 


BABYLONIAN    CIVILIZATION.  2gl 

the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians  as  one  and  the  same  race  of  people, 
and  as  having  a  common  civilization. 

The  Babylonian  cylinders  and  three  or  four  representations  by  Physical 
Babylonian  artists  give  us  some  scant  idea  of  the  physical  characteris-  temtics 
tics  of  this  renowned  ancient  people.  Among  these  remains  is  the 
representation  of  a  Babylonian  king,  believed  to  be  Merodach-iddin- 
ahki,  on  a  black  stone  in  the  British  Museum ;  also  representations  of 
the  warrior  and  the  priest  in  the  tablet  from  Sir-Pal-i-Zohab,  the  man 
accompanying  the  Babylonian  hound,  and  some  imperfect  figures  on 
a  frieze.  A  few  Assyrian  bas-reliefs  represent  Assyrian  campaigns  in 
Babylonia.  The  Babylonian  cylinders  represent  the  Babylonians  as 
of  far  slighter  and  sparer  physical  frames  than  the  Assyrians ;  but  the 
Assyrian  sculptures  show  the  Babylonians  as  having  bodily  forms  as 
brawny  and  massive  as  their  northern  neighbors,  while  the  features  of 
the  two  peoples  were  very  nearly  alike.  The  Assyrian  sculptures  rep- 
resent the  physiognomy  of  the  Babylonians  as  distinguished  by  a  low 
and  straight  but  somewhat  depressed  forehead,  full  lips,  and  a  well- 
marked,  rounded  chin.  The  few  remaining  Babylonian  sculptures  sus- 
tain the  correctness  of  the  Assyrian,  but  represent  the  eye  as  larger 
and  less  almond-shaped,  the  nose  as  shorter  and  more  depressed,  and 
the  general  expression  of  the  countenance  as  more  commonplace. 
These  differences  are  to  be  ascribed  to  the  influence  exerted  upon  the 
physical  form  of  the  race  by  the  primitive  Cushite  Chaldsean  element. 
Herodotus  states  that  the  Babylonians  wore  their  hair  long,  and  this 
statement  is  sustained  by  the  Babylonian  sculptures.  These  sculp- 
tures commonly  represent  the  hair  as  forming  a  single  stiff  and  heavy 
curl  at  the  back  of  the  head,  but  sometimes  they  give  it  the  form  of 
long  flowing  locks  depending  over  the  back,  or  over  the  back  and 
shoulders,  extending  almost  to  the  waist.  Sometimes  we  find  types  \ 

closely  resembling  the  Assyrian,  the  hair  forming  a  round  mass  be- 
hind the  head,  on  which  there  appears  to  have  been  sometimes  a  slight 
wave.  The  style  mentioned  by  Herodotus  was  the  national  fashion, 
and  is  represented  by  the  three  usual  modes.  The  round  mass  was  an 
Assyrian  style,  aped  by  the  Babylonians  during  their  subjection  to 
Assyria.  The  Assyrian  sculptures  represent  the  hair  of  the  Babylo- 
nians as  reaching  below  the  shoulders,  and  as  worn  smooth  on  the  top 
of  the  head  and  depending  from  the  ears  to  the  shoulders  in  many 
large,  smooth,  heavy  curls. 

The  Babylonians  are  likewise  often  represented  with  a  large  beard,       Long 
usually  longer  than  the  Assyrian,  and  reaching  almost  down  to  the 
waist.      Sometimes  it  curls  crisply  upon  the  face,  but  below  the  chin 
it  depends  over  the  breast  in  long  straight  locks,  while  in  other  cases 
it  droops  perpendicularly  from  the  cheeks  and  the  lower  lip ;  but  here 


262 


CHALD^A,   ASSYRIA,   BABYLONIA* 


Baby- 
lonian 
Women. 


Intellec- 
tual 
Ability. 


the  Assyrian  sculptures  represent  the  Babylonian  beard  as  little  longer 
than  the  Assyrian.  Often  there  is  no  beard,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
priests. 

The  Assyrian  sculptures  also  represent  the  Babylonian  women  as 
tall  and  large-limbed,  with  the  Assyrian  physiognomy,  and  with  not 
very  abundant  hair;  but  the  Babylonian  cylinders  make  the  hair  ap- 
pear long  and  prominent,  while  the  physical  forms  are  as  spare  and 
meagre  as  those  of  the  male  sex. 

It  is  evident  that  altogether  the  physical  types  of  the  Assyrians  and 
Babylonians  were  very  nearly  alike,  though  the  Babylonians  had  a 
somewhat  sparer  form,  longer  and  more  flowing  hair,  less  strong  and 
stern  features,  and  a  darker  complexion.  The  last  characteristic  is  to 
be  attributed  partly  to  the  infusion  of  Ethiopian  elements  in  the  popu- 
lation, and  partly  to  their  more  tropical  location,  Babylonia  being  four 
degrees  farther  south  than  Assyria.  The  Cha'ab  Arabs,  who  now 
occupy  the  southern  parts  of  the  ancient  Babylonia,  are  almost  black ; 
while  the  "  black  Syrians,"  mentioned  by  Strabo,  were  probably  the 
Babylonians. 

The  Babylonians  were  distinguished  for  their  intellectual  ability. 
They  inherited  the  scientific  lore  of  their  predecessors,  the  early  Chal- 
dseans,  whose  astronomical  and  mathematical  knowledge  they  not  only 
retained,  but  advanced  and  enlarged  by  their  exertions.  The  fame 
of  their  "  wisdom  and  learning  "  is  recorded  by  the  Jewish  prophets. 
In  alluding  to  them,  Isaiah  said :  "  Thy  wisdom  and  thy  knowledge, 
it  hath  perverted  thee."  Says  Jeremiah :  "  A  sword  is  upon  the  Chal- 
daeans,  saith  the  Lord,  and  upon  the  inhabitants  of  Babylon,  and  upon 
her  princes,  and  upon  her  wise  men."  Daniel  alludes  to  "  the  learn- 
ing and  the  tongue  of  the  Chaldaeans."  Herodotus  mentions  their  use- 
ful inventions,  and  Aristotle  was  indebted  to  them  for  scientific  data. 
They  were  celebrated  for  their  observations  of  astronomical  phenom- 
ena, and  their  careful  records  of  these  observations.  They  were  also 
famed  as  mathematicians.  But  unfortunately  their  astronomy  was 
corrupted  by  astrology;  and  they  professed  to  cast  nativities,  inter- 
pret dreams,  and  foretell  future  occurrences  by  means  of  the  stars,  thus 
tinging  their  astronomy  with  a  mystic  and  unscientific  element ;  though 
there  were  always  some  who  confined  themselves  to  pure  science  and 
repudiated  all  astrological  pretensions. 

The  Babylonians  were  also  a  very  enterprising  people.  Their  active 
prise  and  spirit  led  them  to  engage  extensively  in  manufactures  and  commerce 
by  sea  and  land.  The  same  commercial  spirit  which  so  distinguished 
the  ancient  Phoenicians,  and  which  has  made  the  modern  Jews  such 
successful  merchants,  characterized  the  Semitized  Babylonians,  whose 
land  the  Jewish  prophet  Ezekiel  called  "  a  land  of  traffic,"  and  whose 


Enter- 


BABYLONIAN   CIVILIZATION. 

chief  city  Isaiah  described  as  "  a  city  of  merchants."     The  trading 

spirit  of  the  Babylonians  developed  in  them  the  opposite  vices  of  avar- 

ice and  fondness  for  luxury.     They  "  coveted  with  an  evil  covetous- 

ness,"  as  we  are  informed  by  the  Jewish  writers  Habakkuk  and  Jere- 

miah.    The  "  shameful  custom  "  which  Herodotus  relates,  requiring  Shameful 

of  every  Babylonian  woman,  rich  or  poor,  high-born  or  humble,  pros- 


titution  as  a  religious  duty  in  the  great  temple  of  Beltis  at  Babylon  tioned  by 

once  in  her  life,  was  probably  dictated  by  this  spirit  of  greed,  for  the        tus. 

purpose  of  attacting  strangers  to  the  capital  ;  as  was  also  the  custom 

of  selling  the  marriageable  virgins  at  public  auction,  which  Herod- 

otus also  mentions.     Quintus  Curtius,  the  Roman  writer,  also  says  that 

the  avarice  of  husbands  and  parents  induced  them  to  sell  the  virtue 

of  their  wives  and  daughters  to  strangers. 

Both  sacred  and  profane  writers  continually  dwell  upon  the  luxury     Luxury 
of  the  Babylonians.     We  are  informed  by  Isaiah  that  the  "  daughter     gensu- 
of  the  Chaldagans  "  was  "  tender  and  delicate,"  "  given  to  pleasures,"       ality. 
disposed  to  "  dwell  carelessly."     Ezekiel  tells  us  that  her  young  men 
made  themselves  "  as  princes  to  look  at  —  exceeding  in  dyed  attire  upon 
their  heads."     Nicolas   of  Damascus   relates    that  these   young   men 
painted  their  faces,  wore  ear-rings,  and  dressed  in  robes  of  rich  and 
soft   material.     Polygamy   prevailed   extensively.     The   pleasures    of 
the  table  were  indulged  in  to  excess,  and  drunkenness  was  a  general 
vice.     Rich  unguents,  so  celebrated  by  Posidonius,  were  likewise  in- 
vented.    The  tables  were  loaded  with  gold  and  silver  plate,  according 
to  Nicolas  of  Damascus.     In   short,  the  Babylonians  utterly  aban- 
doned themselves  to  self-indulgence  and  luxurious  living,  reveling  in 
the  utmost  licentiousness. 

They  nevertheless  were  always  brave  and  skillful  in  war,  and  in  the  Warlike 
height  of  their  glory  they  were  one  of  the  most  formidable  of  the  Bravery. 
Oriental  nations.  The  Jewish  prophet  Habakkuk  speaks  of  them  as 
"  the  Chaldseans,  that  bitter  and  hasty  nation,"  and  also  as  "  terrible 
and  dreadful  —  their  horses'  hoofs  swifter  than  the  leopard's,  and  more 
fierce  than  the  evening  wolves."  Isaiah  says  that  they  "  smote  the 
people  in  wrath  with  a  continual  stroke,"  and  that  they  "  made  the 
earth  to  tremble,  and  did  shake  kingdoms."  In  their  great  enter- 
prises they  swept  everything  before  them  with  irresistible  force,  in 
spite  of  all  opposition,  and  unmoved  by  the  calls  of  mercy.  Centuries 
of  warfare  with  the  well-armed  and  well-disciplined  Assyrians  made 
the  Babylonians  the  worthy  successors  of  the  nation  which  had  so  long 
held  them  in  subjection,  so  far  as  the  warlike  virtues  of  energy,  valor 
and  military  skill  are  concerned.  They  extended  their  conquests  from 
the  Persian  Gulf  on  the  east  to  the  Nile  on  the  west.  Their  invincible 
hosts  of  sturdy  warriors  speedily  crushed  all  resistance  and  rapidly  es- 


264 


CHALD^EA,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Brutal 
Treat- 
ment of 

Van- 
quished 

Foes. 


Cruel  and 
Despotic 
Punish- 
ments. 


Pride. 


tablished  the  Babylonian  dominion,  fully  deserving  the  title  of  "  the 
hammer  of  the  whole  earth,"  given  them  by  the  prophet  Jeremiah. 

The  Babylonians  stained  their  triumphs  in  war  with  useless  violence 
and  with  the  usual  Oriental  outrages.  The  Assyrian  policy  of  whole- 
sale deportation  of  conquered  nations  was  practiced  by  them,  regard- 
less of  the  sufferings  which  resulted  in  consequence.  Such  needless 
and  inexcusable  actrocities  as  the  mutilation  of  captives,  the  long  im- 
prisonments, the  massacre  of  non-combatants,  the  execution  of  children 
before  the  eyes  of  their  fathers,  disgraced  the  military  annals  of  the 
Babylonians,  and  exasperated  more  than  they  terrified  the  subjugated 
nations,  thus  weakening  instead  of  strengthening  the  empire.  These 
barbarous  punishments  indicate  the  general  Asiatic  temper — a  temper 
inhuman  and  savage.  The  tiger-like  thirst  for  blood  which  charac- 
terized the  Babylonians  led  them  to  sacrifice  their  national  self-interest 
and  the  peace  of  the  empire  to  the  promptings  of  a  spirit  of  ven- 
geance. 

The  Babylonian  nobles  stood  in  danger  of  losing  their  own  heads 
if  by  the  most  trifling  fault  they  aroused  the  sovereign's  displeasure. 
The  venerable  "  Chaldaeans,"  so  famed  for  their  "  wisdom  and  learn- 
ing," were  at  one  time  threatened  with  extermination  because  they 
failed  to  interpret  a  dream  forgotten  by  the  king.  If  a  monarch 
incurred  the  displeasure  of  his  court,  and  was  considered  as  showing 
a  bad  disposition,  he  was  put  to  death  by  torture.  Such  punishments 
as  cutting  to  pieces  and  casting  into  a  fiery  furnace  prevailed,  as  re- 
lated by  the  prophet  Daniel,  who  also  informs  us  that  the  houses  of 
offenders  were  torn  down  and  turned  into  dung-hills.  These  harsh 
practices  indicate  the  height  of  Eastern  cruelty.  When  the  prophet 
Habakkuk  denounced  the  final  judgment  against  Babylon,  it  was 
announced  as  being  inflicted  "  because  of  men's  blood,  and  for  thft 
violence  of  the  land — of  the  city,  and  all  that  dwelt  therein." 

Pride  was  another  fault  of  the  Babylonians,  as  it  has  ever  been  the 
accompaniment  of  military  success  in  a  nation.  The  sudden  transfer 
of  supremacy  in  the  Mesopotamian  region  from  Assyria  to  Babylonia 
awakened  a  haughty  spirit  in  the  hitherto-subject  kingdom.  The 
Babylonians  in  the  zenith  of  their  power  and  glory  quite  naturally 
regarded  themselves  as  the  greatest  nation  on  earth ;  and  this  spirit  was 
distinctly  manifested  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  who,  when  walking  in  his 
palace  and  viewing  the  splendid  edifices  which  he  had  erected  on  all 
sides  from  the  plunder  of  his  conquests,  and  by  the  forced  labor  of 
his  captives,  exclaimed :  "  Is  not  this  great  Babylon,  that  I  have  built 
for  the  house  of  the  kingdom  by  the  might  of  my  power,  and  for  the 
honor  of  my  majesty!"  The  arrogance  of  the  Babylonians  was  as 
intense  and  as  deep-seated  as  that  of  the  Assyrians,  if  not  so  offensive. 


BABYLONIAN    CIVILIZATION. 


265 


Truly  did  Isaiah  say,  in  alluding  to  this  people :  "  Thou  that  art  given 
to  pleasure,  that  dwellest  carelessly,  that  sayest  in  thine  heart,  I  am, 
and  none  else  besides  me." 

The  Babylonians,  in  spite  of  their  pride,  cruelty,  covetousness,  and 
fondness  for  luxury,  were  a  very  religious  people.  In  Babylonia  the 
temple  held  nearly  the  same  preeminence  over  other  edifices  which  it 
possessed  in  Egypt.  The  immense  ruins  of  the  Birs-i-Nimrud  show 
the  degree  of  labor  expended  in  the  construction  of  sacred  buildings, 
and  the  costly  ornamentation  of  these  structures  is  more  wonderful 
than  their  vast  dimensions.  Immense  sums  were  expended  on  the  idols, 
and  the  entire  appendages  of  worship  displayed  indescribable  pomp 
and  magnificence.  The  kings  devoutly  worshiped  the  various  deities, 
and  devoted  considerable  attention  to  building  and  repairing  temples, 
erecting  images  of  the  gods,  etc.  The  names  given  their  children 
showed  their  religious  feeling  and  their  actual  faith  in  the  power  of 
the  gods  to  protect  their  devotees.  Thus  Nabu-kuduri-izzir  means 
"  Nebo  is  the  protector  of  landmarks  " ;  Bel-shar-izzir  means  "  Bel 
protects  the  king  " ;  and  Evil-Merodach  implies  "  Merodach  is  a  god." 
The  people  in  general  used  names  of  the  same  kind,  containing  in 
nearly  every  case  the  name  of  a  god  as  an  element,  such  as  Belibus, 
Belesis,  Nergal-shar-ezer,  Shamgar-nebo,  Nebu-zar-adan,  Nabonidus, 
etc.  The  seals  and  signets  worn  by  each  man  were  almost  universally 
of  a  religious  character.  Even  in  banquets  and  entertainments,  while 
drinking,  they  uttered  praises  of  the  deities.  Says  the  prophet  Dan- 
iel :  "  They  drank  wine,  and  praised  the  gods  of  gold,  and  of  silver, 
of  brass,  of  iron,  of  wood  and  of  stone." 

Nicolas  of  Damascus  tells  us  that  the  Babylonians  specially  culti- 
vated the  virtues  of  honesty  and  calmness.  The  fact  that  their  trade 
was  flourishing,  that  their  products  were  everywhere  in  demand,  suffici- 
ently proves  their  commercial  honesty. 

Babylon  was  perhaps  the  largest  and  most  splendid  city  of  the 
ancient  Eastern  world.  On  its  site  great  masses  of  ruins  cover  a  space 
much  larger  than  those  of  Nineveh.  Beyond  this  space  in  all  direc- 
tions are  seen  detached  mounds,  showing  that  there  existed  in  past 
times  vast  edifices,  while  spaces  between  the  mounds  indicate  that  there 
also  were  buildings  in  former  ages.  Modern  investigation  and  ex- 
ploration give  us  no  definite  idea  of  the  size  of  Babylon. 

Herodotus  says  that  the  enceinte  of  Babylon  was  a  square,  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty  stadia  (about  fourteen  miles)  each  way,  so  that  the 
whole  circuit  of  the  walls  was  fifty-six  miles,  and  the  area  enclosed 
within  them  less  than  two  hundred  square  miles.  Ctesias,  who,  like 
Herodotus,  saw  the  city  itself,  gave  the  circuit  of  the  walls  an  extent 
of  three  hundred  and  sixty  stadia,  or  forty-one  miles,  thus  represent- 


Religious 
Senti- 
ment. 


Commer- 
cial 
Honesty. 


Ruins  and 
Mounds 

of 
Babylon. 


Its  Walls. 


266 


The  River 

Euphra- 
tes, and 
its  Quays, 
Walls, 
Bridge 

and 
Tunnel. 


Temple  of 

Bel  as 
Described 
by  Herod- 
otus. 

Its  Ziggu- 
rat,  or 
Tower. 


CHALD^EA,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 

ing  the  area  as  little  more  than  one  hundred  square  miles.  Clitarchus 
gave  the  circumference  as  three  hundred  and  sixty-five  stadia ;  Quintus 
Curtius  as  three  hundred  and  sixty-eight  stadia;  Strabo  as  three  hun- 
dred and  eighty-five  stadia.  Quintus  Curtius  tells  us  that  there  was 
a  clear  space  of  a  quarter  of  a  mile  between  the  city  and  the  wall.  The 
walls  of  the  city  were  pierced  with  a  hundred  gates,  and  the  streets  or 
roads  led  directly  to  these  portals.  The  houses  were  usually  three  or 
four  stories  high,  and  are  said  to  have  had  vaulted  roofs,  unprotected 
on  the  outside  with  any  tiling,  because  the  dryness  of  the  climate  ren- 
dered such  protection  unnecessary.  The  beams  of  the  houses  were  of 
palm-wood,  the  only  plentiful  timber  in  the  country.  The  pillars 
were  posts  of  palm-wood  with  twisted  wisps  of  rushes  around  them, 
covered  with  plaster  and  colored. 

The  Euphrates  flowed  through  the  city,  dividing  it  into  two  almost 
equal  parts.  Its  banks  were  lined  all  the  way  with  quays  of  brick  laid 
in  bitumen,  and  were  also  guarded  by  two  brick  walls  skirting  them 
along  their  entire  extent.  Each  of  these  walls  had  twenty-five  gates, 
corresponding  to  the  number  of  streets  extending  upon  the  river.  Out- 
side each  gate  there  was  an  inclined  landing-place,  by  which  the 
water's  edge  could  be  reached.  Boats  kept  at  these  landing-places 
conveyed  passengers  across  the  river.  The  river  was  also  crossed  by 
a  bridge  consisting  of  a  number  of  stone  piers  erected  in  the  channel, 
firmly  held  together  with  fastenings  of  iron  and  lead,  and  connected 
only  during  the  day  by  wooden  drawbridges,  on  which  people  passed 
over,  and  which  were  removed  at  night  to  prevent  the  use  of  the  bridge 
in  the  dark.  Diodorus  gives  this  bridge  a  length  of  five  stadia  (about 
one  thousand  yards)  and  a  width  of  thirty  feet.  He  also  says  that 
there  was  a  tunnel  under  the  river,  connecting  its  two  sides,  and  that 
it  was  fifteen  feet  broad  and  twelve  feet  high  to  the  spring  of  its 
arched  roof. 

The  most  remarkable  edifices  of  Babylon  were  its  two  palaces,  one 
on  each  side  of  the  river,  and  the  great  temple  of  Bel.  Herodotus 
describes  the  great  temple  as  surrounded  by  a  square  enclosure,  two 
stadia  (almost  a  quarter  of  a  mile)  long,  and  as  wide.  Its  main  fea- 
ture was  the  ziggurat,  or  tower,  a  gigantic  solid  mass  of  brick-work, 
built  in  the  same  manner  as  all  other  Babylonian  temple-towers,  in 
stages,  with  square  upon  square,  thus  forming  a  rude  pyramid,  with 
a  shrine  of  the  god  at  the  top.  The  basement  platform  of  this  temple- 
tower,  Herodotus  says,  was  a  stadium,  or  a  little  over  two  hundred 
yards,  each  way.  This  tower  had  eight  stages,  and  the  ascent  to  the 
highest,  which  contained  the  shrine  of  the  god,  was  on  the  outside,  and 
consisted  of  a  series  of  steps,  or  of  an  inclined  plane,  carried  round 
the  four  sides  of  the  structure,  and  leading  to  the  top  in  this  way. 


BABYLONIAN    CIVILIZATION.  267 

Strabo  says  that  the  tower  was  a  stadium  (six  hundred  and  six  feet 
and  nine  inches)  high,  but  this  is  evidently  an  exaggeration.  About 
midway  up  there  was  a  resting-place  provided  with  seats.  The  shrine  Its  Upper 
on  the  summit  of  the  structure  was  large  and  elegant.  It  had  no  im-  SIuine- 
age  in  the  time  of  Herodotus,  but  only  a  golden  table  and  a  large 
couch,  covered  with  an  elegant  drapery ;  but  Diodorus  says  that  before 
the  Persian  conquest  of  Babylon  the  shrine  contained  gigantic  golden 
images  of  Bel,  Beltis  and  Ishtar  respectively.  Two  golden  lions  were 
in  front  of  the  images  of  Beltis,  and  near  these  were  two  colossal  ser- 
pents of  silver,  each  weighing  thirty  talents.  The  golden  table  was 
forty  feet  long  and  fifteen  feet  wide,  and  was  in  front  of  the  statues. 
Two  immense  drinking-cups,  as  heavy  as  the  serpents,  were  upon  the 
golden  table.  The  shrine  likewise  had  two  vast  censors  and  three 
golden  bowls  for  the  three  deities  respectively.  There  was  a  second  Its  Lower 
shrine,  or  chapel,  at  the  base  of  the  tower.  In  the  time  of  Herodotus  Shnne- 
this  shrine  contained  a  sitting  image  of  Bel,  consisting  of  gold.  There 
was  a  golden  table  before  the  image,  and  a  golden  stand  for  the  image 
itself.  The  Babylonian  priests  informed  Herodotus  that  the  gold  of 
the  image,  table  and  stand  together  weighed  eight  hundred  talents. 
Before  the  Persian  conquest  this  second  shrine  had  a  human  figure  of 
solid  gold  twelve  cubits  high.  The  shrine  was  also  well  supplied  with 
private  offerings.  Within  the  sacred  enclosure  outside  the  structure 
were  two  altars,  the  smaller  one  of  gold  on  which  to  offer  sucklings, 
and  the  larger  one  of  stone  on  which  full-grown  victims  were  sacri- 
ficed, and  whereon  a  thousand  talents'  weight  of  frankincense  was 
offered  yearly  at  the  festival  of  the  god. 

The  great  palace  was  larger  than  the  great  temple.  Diodorus  says  Great 
that  it  was  located  within  a  triple  enclosure,  and  that  the  innermost  c 
wall  was  twenty  stadia,  the  middle  forty  stadia,  and  the  outermost  sixty 
stadia  (almost  seven  miles)  in  circumference.  The  outer  wall  was 
entirely  built  of  plain  baked  brick.  The  other  two  walls  were  built 
of  the  same  kind  of  brick  fronted  with  enameled  bricks  representing 
hunting  scenes.  Quintus  Curtius  only  knew  of  one  enclosure,  and  this 
corresponded  to  the  inner  wall  of  Diodorus,  having  a  circuit  of  twenty 
stadia.  Curtius  represented  this  wall  as  eighty  feet  high,  and  its 
foundations  as  lying  thirty  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Dio- 
dorus says  that  the  figures  in  the  hunting  scenes  were  larger  than  life- 
size,  and  that  they  embraced  a  large  variety  of  animal  forms,  and  like- 
wise of  human  forms,  one  of  a  man  thrusting  his  spear  through  a  lion, 
and  another  of  a  woman  on  horseback  aiming  a  javelin  at  a  leopard. 
These  last  the  later  Greeks  supposed  to  represent  the  mythical  Ninus 
and  Semiramis.  The  palace  was  said  to  have  had  three  gates,  two  of 
bronze,  which  had  to  be  opened  and  closed  by  a  machine. 
1—20 


268 


CHALD^A,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


"Hanging 
Gardens  " 

as  De- 
scribed by 
Ancient 
Writers. 


Smaller 
Palace. 


Walls  of 
Babylon  • 

as  De- 
scribed by 
Ancient 
Writers. 


Masonry 

of  the 

Walls. 


The  "  Hanging  Gardens  " — regarded  by  the  Greeks  as  one  of  the 
"  Seven  Wonders  of  the  World  " — were  the  chief  glory  of  the  great 
palace,  and  constituted  its  pleasure-ground.  This  remarkable  con- 
struction was  a  square,  each  side  measuring  four  hundred  Greek  feet, 
according  to  Diodorus.  It  rested  upon  several  tiers  of  open  arches, 
built  one  over  the  other,  and  bearing  at  each  stage,  or  story,  a  solid 
platform,  from  which  arose  the  next  tier  of  arches.  The  structure 
was  seventy-five  feet  high,  and  at  the  top  it  was  covered  with  a  vast 
mass  of  earth,  in  which  were  grown  flowers  and  shrubs,  and  even  the 
largest  trees.  Quintus  Curtius  says  that  the  trunks  of  some  of  these 
trees  were  twelve  feet  in  diameter,  and  Strabo  states  that  some  of  the 
piers  were  hollowed  and  filled  with  earth  to  afford  nourishment  for  the 
roots  of  the  trees.  Water,  conveyed  from  the  Euphrates  through 
pipes,  was  said  by  Strabo  to  have  been  raised  by  a  screw  working  on 
the  principle  of  Archimedes.  There  was  a  layer  of  reeds  mixed  with 
bitumen,  next  a  double  layer  of  burnt  brick  cemented  with  gypsum, 
and  then  a  coating  of  sheet-lead,  between  the  bricks  and  the  mass  of 
soil,  to  protect  the  building  against  gradual  decay  by  the  moisture  pene- 
trating the  brick-work.  The  garden  was  reached  by  steps.  Stately 
apartments  were  among  the  arches  on  which  rested  the  structure,  on 
the  ascent  to  the  garden.  The  machinery  which  raised  the  water  was 
in  a  chamber  within  the  structure.  The  object  of  the  structure  was 
to  produce  an  artificial  mountain. 

The  smaller  palace,  on  the  side  of  the  river  opposite  the  larger  one, 
was  also  surrounded  by  a  triple  enclosure,  the  whole  circuit,  accord- 
ing to  Diodorus,  measuring  thirty  stadia.  This  palace  contained  some 
bronze  statues,  believed  by  the  Greeks  to  represent  the  god  Bel  and 
the  legendary  king  and  queen,  Ninus  and  Semiramis,  along  with  their 
officers.  Painted  and  enameled  bricks  representing  war  and  hunting 
scenes  covered  the  walls. 

The  walls  of  Babylon,  in  connection  with  the  "  Hanging  Gardens," 
were  among  the  "  Seven  Wonders  of  the  World."  Herodotus  says 
that  they  were  fifty  royal  cubits  (about  eighty-five  English  feet)  wide. 
Strabo  and  Quintus  Curtius  gave  the  width  as  thirty-two  feet.  Herod- 
otus assigned  the  walls  a  height  of  two  hundred  royal  cubits,  or  three 
hundred  royal  feet  (about  three  hundred  and  thirty-five  English  feet). 
Ctesias  gave  the  height  as  fifty  fathoms,  or  three  hundred  ordinary 
Greek  feet.  Pliny  and  Solinus  made  the  altitude  two  hundred  and 
thirty-five  feet.  Philostratus  and  Quintus  Curtius  assigned  the  walls 
a  height  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet.  Clitarchus,  according  to  Dio- 
dorus Siculus,  and  Strabo  gave  the  height  as  seventy-five  feet. 

The  walls  were  made  of  bricks  cemented  with  bitumen,  with  occa- 
sional layers  of  reeds  between  the  courses.  Outside  the  walls  were 


BABYLONIAN    CIVILIZATION. 


269 


protected  by  a  wide  and  deep  moat.  Low  towers,  two  hundred  and 
fifty  in  number  according  to  Diodorus  Siculus,  and  rising  about  ten 
or  fifteen  feet  above  the  walls  according  to  Quintus  Curtius  and  Strabo, 
served  as  guard-rooms  for  the  defenders.  Herodotus  says  the  space 
between  the  towers  was  wide  "  enough  for  a  four-horse  chariot  to  turn 
in."  The  height  and  thickness  of  the  walls  gave  them  their  strength 
and  rendered  scaling  and  mining  utterly  hopeless. 

Such  was  the  mighty  Babylon  in  the  day  of  its  glory — a  great  city, 
irregularly  built,  surrounded  by  populous  suburbs  interspersed  among 
fields  and  gardens,  the  whole  included  within  a  large  square  strongly- 
fortified  enceinte,  or  wall  of  brick.  There  are  at  present  few  vestiges 
of  this  vast  and  magnificent  metropolis  of  the  ancient  Oriental  world. 
As  Jeremiah  foretold,  "  the  broad  walls  of  Babylon "  are  "  utterly 
broken."  As  Isaiah  predicted,  "  the  golden  city  ceased " ;  truly  is 
"  it  a  possession  for  the  bittern,  and  pools  of  walls  " ;  it  has  been  swept 
"  with  the  besom  of  destruction  " ;  and  "  Babylon,  the  glory  of  king- 
doms, the  beauty  of  the  Chaldees'  excellency,"  has  become  "  as  when 
God  overthrew  Sodom  and  Gomorrah."  As  Jeremiah  prophesied, 
Babylon  has  "  become  heaps,"  "  an  astonishment,"  and  "  without  an 
inhabitant."  There  are  great  "  heaps "  of  shapeless  and  formless 
mounds  scattered  at  intervals  over  the  whole  region  where  ancient 
Babylon  was  located,  and  the  soil  between  the  "  heaps  "  is  in  many 
instances  composed  of  remnants  of  broken  pottery  and  bricks,  and 
deeply  impregnated  with  nitre,  which  indisputably  proves  that  the  site 
was  at  one  time  occupied  by  an  immense  mass  of  buildings.  On  going 
southward  from  Bagdad  these  remains  gradually  increase,  and  between 
Mohawil  and  the  Euphrates  they  are  continuous,  forming  a  region  of 
immense  mounds. 

These  mounds  commence  about  five  miles  above  the  modern  town  of 
Hillah,  extending  more  than  three  miles  along  the  river  from  north 
to  south,  and  are  located  chiefly  on  the  eastern  bank.  On  the  eastern 
side  the  ruins  consist  mainly  of  three  vast  masses  of  ruined  buildings. 
The  modern  Arabs  call  the  most  northern  of  these  mounds  BABIL, 
which  was  the  real  native  name  of  the  great  ancient  city,  meaning 
"  the  Gate  of  II,"  or  "  the  Gate  of  God."  The  Babil  mound  is  an 
immense  heap  of  brick-work  shaped  like  an  irregular  quadrilateral, 
having  precipitous  sides  with  ravines,  and  being  flat  on  the  top.  The 
southern  side  of  the  ruin  is  the  most  perfect,  and  extends  about  two 
hundred  yards  directly  east  and  west.  At  its  eastern  end  it  forms  a 
right  angle  with  the  eastern  side,  which  extends  almost  due  north  in  a 
direct  line  for  about  one  hundred  and  eighty  yards.  The  western  and 
northern  sides  appear  to  be  much  worn  away,  and  here  are  the  prin- 
cipal ravines.  The  Babil  mound,  whose  greatest  height  is  about  one 


Present 
Ruins. 


Prophe- 
cies of 
Jeremiah 

and 
Isaiah. 


The  BabU 
Mound. 


270 


CHALD^EA,   ASSYRIA,   BABYLONIA. 


Adjacent 
Ruins. 


El  Kasr 
Mound. 


hundred  and  thirty  or  one  hundred  and  forty  feet,  consists  chiefly  of 
sun-dried  bricks,  but  appears  to  have  been  faced  with  fire-burned  bricks 
skillfully  cemented  with  an  excellent  white  mortar.  Nebuchadnezzar's 
name  and  titles  are  on  the  bricks  of  this  outer  facing.  The  little  of 
the  building  uncovered  shows  that  the  lines  of  the  structure  were  per- 
pendicular, and  that  the  side  walls  were  supported  by  buttresses  at 
intervals. 

This  great  structure  was  situated  within  a  square  enclosure,  the 
northern  and  southern  sides  of  which  are  yet  clearly  marked.  A  low 
line  of  rampart  extends  four  hundred  yards  parallel  to  the  eastern  side 
of  the  building,  about  one  hundred  and  twenty  or  one  hundred  and 
thirty  yards  distant  from  it,  and  a  line  of  mound  a  little  longer  runs 
parallel  to  the  northern  side,  but  more  distant  from  it.  A  third  line 
on  the  western  side  traced  early  in  the  present  century  is  now  obliter- 
ated. On  the  western  and  southern  sides  are  the  remains  of  an  ancient 
canal. 

The  Babil  mound  stands  isolated  from  the  other  ruins,  and  below 
it  are  two  mounds,  the  more  northern  of  which  the  Arabs  call  EL  KASR, 
meaning  "  the  Palace,"  and  the  more  southern  "  the  mound  of  Am- 
ran,"  from  the  tomb  of  a  prophet  called  Amran-ibn-Ali,  crowning  its 
summit.  The  Kasr  mound  is  an  oblong  square,  about  seven  hundred 
yards  from  north  to  south,  and  about  six  hundred  yards  from  east  to 
west,  the  sides  facing  the  cardinal  points  of  the  compass.  The  height 
of  this  mound  above  the  plain  is  seventy  feet.  The  rubbish  uncovered 
by  exploration  is  composed  of  loose  bricks,  tiles,  and  fragments  of 
stone.  An  underground  passage,  seven  feet  high,  with  floor  and  walls 
of  baked  brick,  and  arched  at  the  top  with  huge  sandstone  blocks,  has 
been  discovered,  and  is  believed  to  have  been  an  immense  drain.  The 
Kasr,  or  "  palace  "  proper,  is  another  important  relic,  and  from  it  the 
mound  has  received  its  name.  This  consists  of  excellent  brick  ma- 
sonry, remarkably  preserved,  in  the  form  of  walls,  piers  and  buttresses, 
and  in  certain  places  ornamented  with  pilasters.  The  bricks  are  of  a 
pale  yellow  color  and  of  excellent  quality,  and  every  one  is  stamped 
with  the  name  and  titles  of  Nebuchadnezzar.  The  mortar  in  which 
they  are  laid  appears  like  a  fine  lime  cement,  which  so  closely  adheres 
to  the  bricks  that  it  is  not  easy  to  get  a  specimen  whole.  Many  frag- 
ments of  brick,  painted,  and  covered  with  a  thick  glaze  or  enamel,  are 
seen  in  the  dust  at  the  foot  of  the  walls.  Here,  also,  have  been  dis- 
covered a  few  fragments  of  sculptured  stone,  among  which  is  the  frieze 
discovered  by  Layard;  and  slabs  giving  an  account  of  the  erection 
of  Nebuchadnezzar's  palace  have  likewise  been  found.  Near  the  north- 
ern edge  of  the  mound,  and  half-way  in  its  width,  is  a  gigantic  figure 
of  a  lion,  rudely  carved  in  black  basalt,  standing  over  the  prostrate 


BABYLONIAN   CIVILIZATION. 


271 


figure  of  a  man  with  extended  arms.  A  solitary  tree  has  grown  out 
of  the  great  ruin,  which  the  Arabs  say  is  of  a  species  not  found  else- 
where, and  which  they  consider  a  remnant  of  the  hanging  garden  of 
Bokht-i-nazar.  This  tree  is  a  tamarisk,  with  a  strange  growth  and 
foliage,  on  account  of  its  great  age  and  its  exposed  situation. 

Very  clearly,  the  Kasr  mound  indicates  that  it  was  the  site  of  the 
great  palace  of  Nebuchadnezzar.  Tradition  has  given  the  name  of 
Kasr,  or  "  Palace,"  to  this  mound,  and  this  is  confirmed  by  the  inscrip- 
tions upon  slabs  found  here,  in  which  Nebuchadnezzar  calls  the  struc- 
ture his  "  Grand  Palace  " ;  while  all  the  bricks  of  that  portion  of  the 
ruin  remaining  uncovered  bear  that  great  king's  name.  Diodorus  says 
that  the  walls  were  ornamented  with  sculptured  representations  of 
hunting  scenes ;  and  modern  exploration  has  brought  to  light  from  the 
soil  of  the  mound  vast  masses  of  fragments  of  enameled  bricks  with 
various  hues  and  containing  portions  of  human  and  animal  forms,  such 
as  portions  of  a  lion,  of  a  horse,  and  of  a  human  face. 

The  mound  of  Amran,  or  Jumjuma,  about  eight  hundred  yards  south 
of  the  Kasr  mound,  has  an  irregular  and  ill-defined  triangular  shape, 
with  its  three  sides  respectively  a  little  east  of  north,  a  little  south  of 
east,  and  a  little  south  of  west.  The  south-western  side,  which  runs 
almost  parallel  with  the  Euphrates,  appears  to  have  been  at  one  time 
washed  by  the  river,  and  is  over  a  thousand  yards  long ;  while  the  south- 
eastern side  is  about  eight  hundred  yards  long,  and  the  north-western 
about  seven  hundred  yards.  Countless  ravines  traverse  the  mound  on 
all  sides,  extending  almost  to  its  center,  while  the  surface  is  altogether 
undulating.  Sculpture  or  masonry  can  nowhere  be  seen,  but  only  a 
mass  of  rubbish ;  no  clear  outlines  of  buildings  being  thus  far  discov- 
ered. Bricks  bearing  the  names  and  titles  of  some  of  the  earlier  Baby- 
lonian kings  are  sometimes  found,  but  not  the  slightest  vestige  of  a 
wall  has  been  brought  to  light. 

The  Amran  mound  is  believed  to  be  the  site  of  the  old  palace  to 
which  Nebuchadnezzar's  structure  was  an  addition.  Berosus  says  that 
Nebuchadnezzar's  edifice  adjoined  upon  the  old  palace.  On  the  Am- 
ran mound  monuments  of  the  times  previous  to  Nebuchadnezzar's  day 
have  been  found;  and  as  the  early  Babylonian  kings  only  left  memo- 
rials in  the  old  palace,  it  is  reasonable  to  infer  that  this  mound  is  the 
site  of  the  ancient  royal  residence.  The  oblong-square  enclosure  with 
an  important  building  at  its  south-east  angle  is  believed  to  have  been 
the  second  or  smaller  palace  of  Ctesias. 

There  are  likewise  many  scattered  and  irregular  heaps,  or  hillocks, 
on  both  banks  of  the  Euphrates ;  most  of  them  on  the  east  bank,  among 
which  is  the  mound  called  by  the  Arabs  El  Homeira,  "  the  Red."  This 
mound  is  located  about  eight  hundred  yards  due  east  of  the  Kasr 


Identified 
as  Nebu- 
chadnez- 
zar's 
Great 
Palace. 


Amran 
Mound. 


Identified 

as  the  Old 

Palace. 


£1 

Homeira 
Mound. 


272 


CHALDJEA,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Low 
Mounds. 


Brick 
Embank- 
ment. 


Walls  on 
the  East 
Bank  of 
the  Eu- 
phrates. 


Walls   on 
the  West 
Bank  of 
the  Eu- 
phrates. 


Unexca- 

vated 
Mounds. 


mound,  and  is  about  three  hundred  yards  long  and  one  hundred  wide, 
and  sixty  or  seventy  feet  high.  It  consists  of  baked  bricks  of  a  bright 
red  color,  which  are  inscribed  along  their  edges,  and  not,  as  the  others, 
on  their  lower  face. 

A  low  line  of  mounds  can  be  traced  between  the  western  side  of  the 
Amran  and  Kasr  mounds  and  the  present  eastern  bank  of  the  Eu- 
phrates, enclosing  a  narrow  valley,  in  which  the  main  stream,  or  a 
branch  of  it,  appears  to  have  flowed  in  ancient  times. 

The  remains  of  a  brick  embankment  are  also  traceable  on  the  east 
bank  of  the  river  between  the  Babil  and  Kasr  mounds,  extending  about 
a  thousand  yards  in  a  slightly-curved  line  and  a  general  direction  of 
south  by  south-west.  The  bricks  of  this  embankment  are  very  hard, 
of  a  bright  red  color,  and  are  wholly  laid  in  bitumen.  They  bear  a 
legend  showing  that  the  quay  was  constructed  by  Nabonidus. 

Among  other  remarkable  remains  are  some  long  lines  of  rampart  on 
both  sides  of  the  Euphrates,  outside  of  the  other  ruins,  enclosing  all 
of  them,  excepting  the  Babil  mound.  On  the  east  bank  of  the  river 
are  traces  of  a  double  line  of  wall,  or  rampart,  running  almost  directly 
north  and  south,  and  situated  about  a  thousand  yards  east  of  the  Kasr 
and  Amran  mounds.  Beyond  this  rampart  is  a  single  line  of  wall  to 
the  north-east,  which  can  be  traced  for  about  two  miles,  running  in  a 
direction  almost  from  north-west  to  south-east,  and  a  double  line  of 
rampart  to  the  south-east,  which  can  be  traced  for  a  mile  and  a  half, 
extending  in  a  direction  from  north-east  to  south-west.  The  two  lines 
of  this  last  rampart  are  between  six  hundred  and  seven  hundred  yards 
apart,  and  diverge  from  each  other  as  they  extend  out  to  the  north- 
east. The  inner  line  connects  with  the  north-eastern  rampart  almost 
at  a  right  angle,  and  is  a  part  of  the  same  work. 

On  the  west  bank  of  the  river  are  ruins  of  the  same  kind.  A  ram- 
part twenty  feet  high  extends  for  almost  a  mile  parallel  with  the  gen- 
eral line  of  the  Amran  mound,  about  a  thousand  yards  from  the  ancient 
course  of  the  stream.  Each  end  of  the  line  of  rampart  turns  at  a 
right  angle,  extending  down  towards  the  river,  and  can  be  traced  to- 
wards the  north  for  four  hundred  yards  and  towards  the  south  for  fifty 
or  sixty.  There  are  evidences  that  before  the  Euphrates  flowed  in  its 
present  channel  there  was  a  rectangular  enclosure,  a  mile  long  and  a 
thousand  yards  wide,  opposite  to  the  Amran  mound;  and  at  the  south- 
east angle  of  this  enclosure  appears  to  have  been  an  important  edifice, 
the  bricks  here  bearing  the  name  of  Neriglissar. 

All  the  ruins  of  Babylon  now  traceable  are  found  in  a  space  not 
much  over  three  miles  long  and  a  mile  and  three-fourths  wide.  These 
remains  are  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  nitrous  soil  and  low  mounds 
which  have  not  been  excavated,  but  which  are  believed  to  mark  the 


BABYLONIAN   CIVILIZATION. 


373 


Bir«-i- 


locations  of  smaller  temples  and  other  public  edifices  of  the  renowned 
ancient  city.  Such  masses  are  most  general  to  the  north  and  east,  and 
often  extend  for  miles.  The  mass  of  Babylonian  ruins  reaching  from 
Babil  to  Amran  covers  an  area  about  as  large  as  the  Koyunjik  mound 
on  the  site  of  Nineveh.  These  Babylonian  ruins  appear  to  have  been 
"  the  heart  of  the  city,"  "  the  royal  quarter."  Says  Layard  :  "  South- 
ward of  Babil  for  the  distance  of  three  miles  there  is  almost  an  unin- 
terrupted line  of  mounds,  the  ruins  of  vast  edifices,  collected  together 
as  in  the  heart  of  a  great  city."  Thus  Babylon  vastly  exceeded  Nin- 
eveh in  its  dimensions. 

The  most  remarkable  of  Babylonian  ruins  is  that  of  the  Birs-i- 
Nimrud,  or  ancient  temple  of  Nebo  at  Borsippa.  Upon  a  crude  brick 
platform,  a  few  feet  above  the  level  of  the  alluvial  plain,  was  erected 
the  basement  stage  of  the  vast  structure,  an  exact  square,  two  hundred 
and  seventy-two  feet  each  way,  and  twenty-six  feet  high.  The  second 
stage  was  just  as  high,  and  a  square  of  only  two  hundred  and  thirty 
feet,  twelve  feet  from  the  south-western  edge  of  the  first  stage,  and 
thirty  feet  from  the  north-eastern  edge.  The  third  stage  was  placed 
the  same  way  upon  the  second,  and  was  also  twenty-six  feet  high,  and 
a  square  of  one  hundred  and  eighty-eight  feet.  The  fourth  stage  was 
fifteen  feet  high,  and  was  a  square  of  one  hundred  and  forty-six  feet, 
and  was  placed  upon  the  third  in  the  same  way  as  the  others  had  been 
upon  those  below  them.  The  fifth  stage  was  a  square  of  one  hundred 
and  four  feet,  the  sixth  a  square  of  sixty-two  feet,  and  the  seventh  a 
square  of  twenty  feet.  These  stages  were  each  fifteen  feet  high.  The 
shrine  or  tabernacle  was  on  the  seventh  and  highest  stage,  which  was 
fifteen  feet  high  and  square.  The  entire  structure  was  thus  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty-six  feet  high. 

This  temple  was  chiefly  ornamented  by  means  of  color.  The  seven  Its  Orna- 
stages  represented  the  Seven  Spheres  in  which  the  seven  planets  were 
believed  to  move.  Each  planet  was  given  a  special  hue  or  tint.  The 
sun  was  golden,  the  moon  silver,  the  planet  Saturn  black,  Jupiter 
orange,  Mars  red,  Venus  a  pale  yellow,  Mercury  a  deep  blue.  The 
basement  stage,  assigned  to  Saturn,  was  blackened  with  bitumen.  The 
second  stage,  that  of  Jupiter,  r/as  faced  with  burned  bricks  of  an 
orange  hue.  The  third  stage,  that  of  Mars,  was  made  red  with  burned 
bricks  of  a  bright  red  clay.  The  fourth  stage,  that  of  the  sun,  was 
covered  with  plates  of  gold.  The  fifth  stage,  that  of  Venus,  was  faced 
with  bricks  of  a  pale  yellow  tint.  The  sixth  stage,  that  of  Mercury, 
was  given  an  azure  tint  by  vitrifaction,  the  entire  stage  having  been 
subjected  to  a  great  heat  after  it  was  erected,  which  gave  the  bricks 
a  blue  color.  The  seventh  stage,  that  of  the  moon,  was  coated  with 
silver  plates.  The  basement  stage  had  a  number  of  square  recesses. 
VOL.  1.—  18 


Other 


S74 


CHALD^A,   ASSYRIA,   BABYLONIA. 


Identified 

as  the 

Tempel  of 

Bel. 


Baby- 
lonian 
Art,  Sci- 
ence and 
Architec- 
ture as 
Described 
by  the 
Greek 
Writers. 


Baby- 
lonian 
Temple*. 


Temple 
Towers, 

or 


The  third  stage  was  supported  by  a  number  of  low  buttresses.  The 
shrine  was  of  brick,  and  is  believed  to  have  been  richly  ornamented. 
The  tower  is  believed  to  have  fronted  to  the  north-east,  on  which  side 
was  the  ascent,  believed  to  have  been  a  broad  staircase  extending  along 
the  entire  front  of  the  structure.  The  side  platforms,  towards  the 
south-east  and  north-west,  were  occupied  by  a  series  of  chambers  abut- 
ting upon  the  perpendicular  wall.  The  side  chambers  communicated 
with  vaulted  apartments  within  the  solid  mass  of  the  edifice. 

The  ruin  now  known  as  the  Birs-i-Nimrud,  about  eleven  or  twelve 
miles  from  the  Babil  mound,  has  been  supposed  by  some  to  be  the  site 
of  the  old  temple  of  Bel ;  but  the  cylinders  found  by  Sir  Henry  Raw- 
linson  in  the  Birs-i-Nimrud  call  the  structure  "  the  wonder  of  Bor- 
sippa,"  and  all  the  ancient  authorities  say  that  Borsippa  was  a  city 
by  itself — a  town  wholly  distinct  from  Babylon.  It  has  also  been 
believed  that  the  Babil  mound  itself  is  the  site  of  the  old  temple  of 
Bel — the  spot  on  which  was  built  the  Tower  of  Babel.  The  great 
difficulty  in  identifying  this  site  with  the  old  temple  is  the  statement 
of  Herodotus  expressly  asserting  that  the  temple  of  Bel  and  the  great 
palace  were  upon  opposite  sides  of  the  river,  whereas  the  Babil  and 
Kasr  mounds  are  both  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Euphrates. 

The  Babylonians  were  among  the  most  ingenious  of  all  ancient  na- 
tions, and  made  great  progress  in  the  arts  and  sciences.  The  classical 
writers  usually  rank  them  with  the  Egyptians  in  this  respect.  The 
Babylonians  especially  excelled  in  architecture  and  astronomy.  The 
primitive  Chaldaeans,  the  ancestors  of  the  later  Babylonians,  first  ap- 
pear in  history  as  great  builders ;  and  Nebuchadnezzar,  the  great  king 
of  the  Later  Babylonian  Empire,  specially  prided  himself  upon  his 
architectural  works.  Herodotus,  upon  visiting  Babylon,  was  mainly 
impressed  with  its  wonderful  edifices;  and  the  glowing  descriptions  of 
these  structures  by  the  Greek  writers  have  mainly  given  to  the  Baby- 
lonians their  fame  and  their  high  rank  among  the  great  nations  of 
ancient  Asia. 

Their  architecture  appears  to  have  culminated  in  the  temple.  The 
temple  in  Babylonia  occupied  the  same  rank  which  it  held  in  Egypt 
and  in  Greece,  and  unlike  in  Assyria,  where  the  temple  was  a  mere 
appendage  of  the  palace.  The  temple  was  the  great  edifice  of  a  city, 
or  a  portion  of  a  city,  being  higher  and  more  conspicuous  than  any 
other  building.  It  rivaled  the  palace  in  every  respect,  being  mag- 
nificently adorned,  and  having  offerings  of  enormous  value  deposited  in 
it.  It  inspired  awe  by  its  religious  associations,  and  was  not  only  a 
place  of  worship,  but  a  refuge  to  many  on  perilous  occasions. 

The  Babylonian  temple  was  usually  surrounded  by  a  walled  en- 
closure, a  square  of  two  stadia  each  way,  or  an  area  of  thirty  acres. 


ANCIENT  BABYLON 

Upper  Section:   The  Ziggurrat  of  the  Temple  of  Bel  (6500  B.C.) 
Lower  Section:   Pavement  of  Ur-Gur  in  Temple  of  Bel  (2750  B.C.) 


BABYLONIAN   CIVILIZATION. 


275 


The  temple  commonly  consisted  of  two  parts.  The  ziggurat,  or  tower, 
was  either  square  or  rectangular,  and  built  in  stages,  as  high  as  seven, 
or  as  low  as  two,  in  number.  A  shrine  or  chapel  containing  altars 
and  images  was  at  the  top  of  the  tower.  The  towers  were  ascended  on 
the  outside  by  means  of  winding  steps  or  an  inclined  plane.  Either 
the  sides  or  the  angles  of  the  tower  faced  the  cardinal  points  of  the 
compass.  Diodorus  Siculus  said  that  the  towers  were  used  not  only 
for  worship,  but  also  as  observatories.  There  was  a  second  shrine  or 
chapel  at  the  base  of  the  tower,  in  which  the  images  and  furniture  were 
of  gold  and  silver.  In  the  vicinity  of  this  lower  shrine  was  a  golden 
altar,  on  which  were  sacrificed  various  kinds  of  victims. 

The  Babylonian  palace  stood  upon  a  high  mound  or  platform,  like 
the  Assyrian  and  the  Susianian  palace.  The  palace  mound  was  usu- 
ally square,  elevated  about  fifty  or  sixty  feet.  It  was  built  chiefly  of 
sun-dried  bricks,  enclosed  on  the  outside  by  burnt  bricks,  and  also  on 
the  inside.  The  whole  was  carefuly  drained,  and  the  waters  were  con- 
veyed through  underground  channels  to  the  level  of  the  plain  at  the 
base  of  the  mound.  The  Babylonian  palaces  are  so  completely  ruined 
that  no  full  description  of  them  can  be  given  with  certainty.  The 
lines  of  the  edifice  were  straight,  the  walls  arose  to  a  considerable  height 
without  windows,  and  numbers  of  pilasters  and  buttresses  broke  the 
flatness  of  the  straight  line.  The  palace  was  often  ornamented  with 
sculptured  stone  slabs,  on  which  were  carefully-wrought  figures  of  a 
small  size.  Diodorus  states  that  the  general  ornamentation  consisted 
of  colored  representations  of  war-scenes  and  hunting-scenes  on  brick. 
Many  such  representations  have  been  found  on  the  Kasr  mound.  They 
are  alternated  with  cuneiform  inscriptions,  in  white  and  on  a  blue 
ground,  or  with  a  patterning  of  rosettes  in  the  same  colors. 

The  Babylonian  domestic  architecture  was  of  a  poor  and  coarse 
style,  and  displayed  little  taste.  The  houses  were  three  or  four  stories 
high,  but  were  of  a  rude  construction ;  the  pillars  were  palm  posts  sur- 
rounded with  wisps  of  rushes,  and  then  plastered  and  painted. 

The  only  Babylonian  building  material  was  brick,  consisting  of  two 
kinds,  sun-dried  and  kiln-burned,  as  was  the  case  in  ancient  Chaldaea 
and  in  Assyria.  The  Babylonians,  however,  only  applied  the  sun-dried 
bricks  to  the  platforms,  and  to  the  interior  of  palace  mounds  and  of 
very  thick  walls,  and  never  made  that  kind  the  only  building  material. 
In  all  cases  there  was  at  least  a  revetement  of  kiln-dried  brick,  while 
the  more  splendid  edifices  were  entirely  built  of  that  kind.  The  baked 
bricks  were  of  several  kinds  and  sizes.  The  finest  kind  were  yellow, 
another  kind  were  blackish-blue,  while  the  ordinary  and  coarser  kind 
were  pink  or  red.  The  bricks  were  always  shaped  square,  and  were 
twelve  or  fourteen  inches  long  and  wide,  and  from  three  to  four  inches 


General 
Descrip- 
tion of 
Baby- 
lonian 
Palaces. 


Dwell- 
ings. 


Baby- 
lonian 
Bricks. 


276 


CHALD^EA.   ASSYRIA.    BABYLONIA. 


Cements. 


Baby- 
lonian 
Mimetic- 
Art. 


Mechani- 
cal Arts. 


Metal- 
lurgy. 


thick.  Half -bricks  were  used  in  alternate  rows  at  the  corners  of  build- 
ings. They  were  always  made  with  a  mold,  and  were  usually  stamped 
on  one  face  with  an  inscription.  They  were  commonly  laid  horizon- 
tally, though  sometimes  vertically,  separated  from  one  another  by 
single  horizontal  layers. 

The  Babylonians  used  three  kinds  of  cement  in  their  buildings.  One 
kind  was  a  crude  clay,  or  mud,  mixed  with  chopped  straw.  A  better 
material  was  bitumen;  but  the  most  common  kind  was  mortar,  or  lime 
cement. 

There  are  few  remaining  specimens  of  Babylonian  mimetic  art,  and 
these  are  mainly  fragmentary,  and  worn  by  time  and  exposure.  Be- 
sides the  quaint  and  grotesque  intaglios  on  seals  and  gems,  there  are  less 
than  a  half-dozen  specimens  of  their  mimetic  art  remaining.  There 
is  a  sculpture  of  a  lion  standing  over  the  prostrate  figure  of  a  man, 
yet  seen  on  the  Kasr  mound.  There  are  a  few  modeled  clay  figures. 
One  is  a  statuette  of  a  mother  with  a  child  seated  on  a  rough  square 
pedestal.  The  mother  is  naked,  except  a  hood  on  the  head,  and  a 
narrow  apron  in  front.  The  child  sleeping  on  her  left  arm  wears  a 
short  tunic,  gathered  into  plaits.  The  statuette  is  about  three  and  a 
half  inches  high.  There  is  a  figure  of  a  king,  principally  remarkable 
for  the  elaborate  ornamentation  of  the  head-dress  and  the  robes  en- 
graved on  a  large  black  stone.  This  figure,  supposed  to  represent 
Merodach-iddin-akhi,  is  now  in  the  British  Museum.  There  are  en- 
graved animal  forms  on  black  stones,  such  as  the  figure  of  a  dog  sitting 
and  the  figure  of  a  bird.  The  engravings  on  gems  and  cylinders  are 
grotesque  figures  of  men  and  animals,  and  men  and  monsters.  The 
most  elaborate  and  artistic  of  the  Babylonian  works  of  art  were  the 
enamelings  on  brick.  According  to  the  prophet  Ezekiel  "  the  images 
of  the  Chaldseans,  portrayed  upon  the  wall,  were  vermilion."  Other 
colors  were  used  in  the  adornment  of  palaces  and  public  edifices,  such 
as  white,  blue,  yellow,  red,  brown  and  black. 

The  Babylonians  also  made  considerable  progress  in  the  mechanical 
arts,  such  as  cutting,  boring  and  engraving  hard  stones,  and  the  arts 
of  agriculture,  metallurgy,  pottery,  weaving,  embroidery,  etc.  Be- 
sides the  softer  stones,  such  as  alabaster,  serpentine,  and  lapis-lazuli, 
the  Babylonian  artisans  worked  the  harder  kinds,  such  as  agate,  quartz, 
jasper,  syenite,  cornelian,  lodestone,  and  green  felspar,  or  amazon- 
stone.  The  minuteness  of  the  work  in  some  of  the  Babylonian  seals 
and  gems  indicates  that  they  must  have  been  engraved  with  the  aid  of 
a  powerful  magnifying-glass.  The  art  of  cutting  glass  was  well  un- 
derstood. 

The  Babylonians  used  gold  and  silver  for  statues,  furniture  and 
utensils,  bronze  for  gates  and  images,  and  iron  also  for  the  latter. 


BABYLONIAN   CIVILIZATION. 


277 


They  used  lead  and  iron  in  building.  The  golden  images  were  some- 
times solid,  and  sometimes  only  plated.  The  silver  images,  ornamental 
figures  and  utensils  are  also  believed  to  have  been  solid.  The  city  and 
palace  gates  were  of  bronze.  The  metal-work  of  personal  ornaments, 
such  as  bracelets,  armlets  and  dagger-handles,  resembled  the  work  of 
the  Assyrians.  Small  bronze  figures  of  dogs,  monsters  and  grotesque 
figures  of  men,  were  cast  as  ornaments  for  houses,  furniture,  etc. 

The  Babylonian  pottery  was  excellent,  and  the  bricks  were  superior 
to  the  Assyrian.  The  earthenware  is  of  fine  terra-cotta,  usually  of  a 
light  red  color,  and  slightly  baked,  but  sometimes  of  a  yellow  hue, 
tinged  with  green;  and  consists  of  cups,  jars,  vases  and  other  vessels, 
which  appear  to  have  been  made  upon  the  wheel.  The  Babylonians 
had  small  glass  bottles,  several  of  which  were  found  by  Mr.  Layard  in 
the  Babil  mound.  Broken  glass  is  found  generally  in  the  rubbish  of 
the  mounds. 

The  textile  fabrics  of  the  Babylonians  were  the  most  celebrated  of 
all  their  productions.  Their  carpets  had  acquired  a  wide  fame  and 
were  largely  exported  to  foreign  lands.  They  were  dyed  in  various 
colors,  and  represented  griffins  and  other  monsters.  They  ranked 
above  all  others  in  the  ancient  world,  as  those  of  the  Turks  and  Per- 
sians do  in  the  modern.  The  Babylonian  muslins  were  almost  as  cele- 
brated as  the  carpets,  and  were  formed  of  the  finest  cotton  and  dyed 
with  the  most  brilliant  colors.  The  Orientals  regarded  them  as  the 
best  material  for  dress,  and  the  Persian  monarchs  preferred  them  to 
their  own  wear.  Borsippa  was  the  chief  seat  of  the  Babylonian  linen 
manufacture.  Long  linen  robes  were  generally  worn  by  this  people. 

In  astronomy  the  Babylonians  far  excelled  all  other  ancient  nations, 
as  their  Chaldaean  ancestors  were  the  great  pioneers  in  this  sublime 
science.  The  first  Greeks  who  made  any  advance  in  this  science  ac- 
knowledged themselves  the  disciples  of  Babylonian  teachers.  Hip- 
parchus,  the  first  great  Greek  astronomer,  mentioned  the  Babylonians 
as  astronomical  observers  from  a  dimly-remote  antiquity.  Aristotle 
confessed  that  the  Greeks  were  vastly  indebted  for  astronomical  infor- 
mation to  the  Babylonians  and  Egyptians.  Ptolemy  made  much  use 
of  the  Babylonian  observations  of  eclipses.  Sir  Cornwall  Lewis  says 
that  "  the  Greeks  were  in  the  habit  of  attributing  the  invention  and 
original  cultivation  of  astronomy  either  to  the  Babylonians  or  to  the 
Egyptians,  and  represented  the  earliest  scientific  Greek  astronomers 
as  having  derived  their  knowledge  from  Babylonian  or  from  Egyptian 
priests." 

We  have  alluded  to  the  progress  of  the  early  Chaldasans  in  astron- 
omy. On  the  broad,  flat  plains  of  Chaldasa  the  clear  sky,  the  dry 
atmosphere,  and  the  level  horizon,  afforded  facilities  for  observation 


Pottery 

and  Glass 

Work. 


Carpets, 
Muslins 

and 
Linens. 


Astron- 
omy. 

Greeks 

Learned 

from 

Baby- 
lonians. 


Early 
Chaldaean 
Observa- 
tions in 
Astron- 
omy. 


*78 


CHALD^EA,   ASSYRIA,   BABYLONIA. 


Origin  of 
Uranog- 
raphy,  or 
Constella- 
tion 
Grouping. 


The 

Zodiacal 
Constella- 
tions. 


Observa- 
tion and 
Calcula- 
tion of 
Eclipses. 


Records 

of 
Eclipses. 


and  naturally  first  turned  man's  attention  to  the  celestial  hemisphere. 
At  a  very  early  date  the  fixed  stars  were  distinguished  from  five  larger 
luminaries  which  the  Greeks  called  "  planets,"  which  are  the  only 
movable  stars  that  can  be  seen  without  the  aid  of  a  telescope  of  high 
magnifying  power.  They  also  soon  discovered  that  the  moon  was  a 
wandering  luminary,  and  observed  that  the  sun  rose  and  set  in  the 
vicinity  of  different  constellations  in  different  parts  of  the  year. 

They  arranged  the  stars  in  groups,  or  "  constellations,"  to  mark 
out  the  courses  of  the  sun  and  moon  among  the  stars.  The  names  of 
these  constellations  were  derived  from  some  real  or  fancied  resemblance 
of  the  groups  to  objects  with  which  the  early  observers  were  familiar. 
This  department  of  astronomy  is  called  uranography.  Though  these 
groupings  of  the  fixed  stars  is  mainly  fanciful,  its  utility  is  inestimable, 
for  by  its  means  only  are  we  enabled  to  point  out  individual  stars  and 
retain  in  the  memory  a  knowledge  of  their  general  arrangement  and 
relative  positions. 

This  old  Chaldaean,  or  Babylonian,  uranography  is  to  this  day  rec- 
ognized by  scientific  astronomers,  and  is  represented  on  our  globes  and 
maps.  The  zodiacal  constellations,  especially  those  through  which  the 
sun's  course  lies,  originated,  as  we  have  said,  with  the  Chaldaeans,  and 
many  of  them  are  represented  on  Babylonian  monuments  of  a  stellar 
character.  A  Babylonian  conical  black  stone  now  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum, and  belonging  to  the  twelfth  century  before  Christ,  is  an  ar- 
rangement of  constellations  according  to  the  forms  assigned  them  in 
Babylonian  uranography.  On  this  stone  are  recognized  the  Ram,  the 
Bull,  the  Scorpion,  the  Serpent,  the  Dog,  the  Arrow,  the  Eagle  or  Vul- 
ture. There  are  similar  forms  on  other  monuments  of  a  like  character. 

The  Babylonians  called  the  zodiacal  constellations  the  "  Houses  of 
the  Sun,"  and  distinguished  them  from  another  set  of  asterisms,  which 
they  designated  the  "  Houses  of  the  Moon."  They  observed  and  cal- 
culated eclipses,  but  their  knowledge  was  empirical.  We  have  noted 
of  the  early  Chaldseans  that  they  discovered  the  period  of  two  hun- 
dred and  twenty-three  lunations,  or  eighteen  years  and  ten  days,  after 
which  eclipses,  particularly  those  of  the  moon,  recur  again  in  the  same 
order.  Their  knowledge  of  this  cycle  enabled  them  to  foretell  lunar 
eclipses  accurately  for  ages,  and  solar  eclipses  with  little  inaccuracy 
for  the  next  few  cycles. 

The  Babylonians  carefully  noted  and  recorded  eclipses.  Ptolemy 
had  access  to  a  continuous  series  of  such  observations  dating  back  from 
his  own  time  to  B.  C.  747.  From  Babylonian  sources  Hipparchus 
described  eclipses  of  the  moon  for  the  years  B.  C.  721,  720,  621  and 
523,  the  first  of  which  was  total  at  Babylon,  the  others  only  partial. 
These  observations  are  seen  to  answer  every  purpose  of  modern  science. 


BABYLONIAN   CIVILIZATION. 


279 


Comets, 

Eclipses 
and  Di8" 

sun, 

**°,on  and 

Plcincts 


We  have  knowledge  of  Babylonian  observations  as  far  back  as  Nabo- 
nassar,  B.  C.  747,  as  that  king,  according  to  the  account  by  Berosus, 
destroyed  the  previously-existing  observations,  so  that  exact  chronol- 
ogy might  begin  with  his  own  reign. 

The  Babylonians  arranged  a  catalogue  of  the  fixed  stars,  which  were       Star 
employed  by  the  Greeks  in  compiling  their  stellar  tables.     They  re-      i™^ 
corded  their  observations  upon  occultations  of  the  planets  by  the  sun  SunDials, 
and  the  moon.     They  invented  two  kinds  of  sun-dials,  the  gnomon  and  i^th  of 
the  polos,  by  means  of  which  they  could  measure  time  during  the  day,      Year. 
and  accurately  establish  the  exact  length  of  the  solar  day.     They  dis- 
covered the  length  of  the  synodic  revolution  of  the  moon  within  a  small 
fraction.     The  exact  length  of  the  Chaldaean  year  was  three  hundred 
and  sixty-five  days,  six  hours  and  eleven  minutes;  which  is  only  two 
seconds  longer  than  the  true  sidereal  year. 

This  renowned  ancient  people  observed  comets,  and  believed  them  to 
be  permanent  bodies,  revolving  in  orbits  like  those  of  the  planets. 
They  believed  eclipses  of  the  sun  to  be  due  to  the  interposition  of  the 
moon  between  the  sun  and  the  earth.  They  knew  very  nearly  the  rela- 
tive  distances  of  the  sun,  the  moon  and  the  planets  from  the  earth. 
Naturally  adopting  a  geocentric  system,  they  decided  that  the  moon 
was  nearest  to  the  earth;  that  Mercury  was  beyond  the  moon,  Venus 
beyond  Mercury,  Mars  beyond  Venus,  Jupiter  beyond  Mars,  and  Sat- 
urn beyond  Jupiter.  From  the  difference  in  the  periodic  times  of  these 
luminaries  the  Babylonians  inferred  a  corresponding  difference  in  the 
sizes  of  the  orbits,  and  therefore  their  relative  distances  from  the  com- 
mon center. 

The  astronomical  achievements  of  the  Babylonians  thus  far  described 
rest  upon  the  authority  of  the  ancient  Greek  and  Roman  writers.  and 
There  are  many  Chaldaean  and  Babylonian  astronomical  tablets  in  the 
British  Museum,  which  are  not  yet  thoroughly  understood.  It  is  said 
that  there  is  clear  evidence  that  the  Babylonians  observed  the  four 
satellites  of  Jupiter,  and  good  reason  for  believing  that  they  had  a 
knowledge  of  the  seven  satellites  of  Saturn.  They  so  well  understood 
the  general  laws  of  the  movements  of  the  celestial  bodies  that  they  could 
foretell  the  positions  of  the  different  planets  throughout  the  year. 

They  must  have  employed  some  instruments  to  acquire  the  knowl- 
edge  which  they  possessed.     We  have  observed  that  they  invented  sun- 
dials  to  measure  time  during  the  day.     The  clepsydra,  or  water-clock, 
commonly  used  by  the  Greeks  as  early  as  the  fifth  century  before  Christ, 
is  believed  to  have  been  a  Babylonian  invention.     The  astrolobe,  an 
instrument  used  to  measure  the  altitude  of  the  stars  above  the  horizon,      Astro- 
and  which  was  known  to  Ptolemy,  is  likewise  believed  to  have  been  in-    ^^^ 
vented  by  this  people.     If,  as  believed,  the  satellites  of  Saturn  are      tiona. 


and  Baby- 
xablete 


Planetary 
Satellites 

Positions. 

cl    s  . 
dra, 


Authority 

ana 
Greek 


and 
Baby- 

Tablets, 


280  CHAIJXEA,   ASSYRIA,   BABYLONIA. 

mentioned  upon  the  tablets,  the  Babylonian  must  nave  had  optical  in- 
struments like  the  telescope;  as  it  is  impossible,  even  in  the  clear  and 
vaporless  sky  of  Chaldaea,  to  see  the  moons  of  that  remote  planet  with- 
out the  aid  of  lenses.  As  we  have  said,  a  lens  has  been  discovered 
among  the  Assyrian  ruins.  A  people  with  sufficient  ingenuity  to  dis- 
cover the  magnifying-glass  would  naturally  be  able  to  invent  its  oppo- 
site. The  existence  of  two  opposite  kinds  of  lenses  would  furnish  the 
elements  of  a  telescope. 

Astrol-  Though  a  class  of  pure  astronomers  existed  among  the  Babylonians, 
°£y>  most  of  those  engaged  in  the  study  of  astronomy  followed  it  because 
they  believed  that  the  heavenly  bodies  had  some  mysterious  influence 
upon  the  seasons,  and  also  upon  the  lives  and  fortunes  of  individuals, 
and  that  this  influence  could  be  discovered  and  foretold  by  long  and 
careful  observation.  The  ancient  Jewish  and  Greek  writers  bear  wit- 
ness  to  this  fact,  and  their  testimony  is  confirmed  by  existing  astro- 
nomical  remains.  Most  of  the  Babylonian  tablets  are  of  an  astro- 
logical  character,  recording  the  supposed  influence  of  the  celestial 
bodies,  singly,  in  conjunction,  or  in  opposition,  upon  all  earthly  affairs, 
from  the  fate  of  kingdoms  and  empires  to  the  washing  of  hands  or  the 
paring  of  nails.  Says  Rawlinson  :  "  The  modern  prophetical  almanac 
is  the  legitimate  descendant  and  the  sufficient  representative  of  the 
ancient  Chaldee  Ephemeris,  which  was  just  as  silly,  just  as  pretentious, 
and  just  as  worthless." 

Chaldee  astrology  was  chiefly  genethlialogical,  inquiring  under  what 
asPect  °f  the  heavens  individuals  were  born  or  conceived,  and  pretend- 
ing  to  ascertain  the  entire  life  and  fortunes  of  men  from  the  position 
°f  the  heavenly  bodies  at  one  or  the  other  of  these  moments.  Diodorus 
says  that  it  was  believed  that  a  particular  star  or  constellation  watched 
over  the  birth  of  each  individual,  and  thereafter  exercised  a  special 
malign  or  benignant  influence  over  his  life.  His  fortunes  depended 
on  the  whole  aspect  of  the  heavens,  as  well  as  upon  this  one  star.  Cast- 
ing the  horoscope  was  reproducing  this  aspect,  and  then  reading  by 
its  means  the  destiny  of  the  individual. 

Weather        The  Chaldaeans  also  pretended  to  predict  changes  of  the  weather, 

a^re^k-r  *"gh  winds  and  storms,  great  heats,  the  appearance  of  comets,  eclipses, 

tions.       earthquakes,  etc.,  from  the  stars.     They  published  lists  of  lucky  and 

unlucky  days,  and  tables  indicating  what  aspect  of  the  heavens  por- 

tended good  or  evil  to  particular  nations.     Sir  Henry  Rawlinson  has 

discovered  both  lists  among  the  tablets.     They  considered  their  art  as 

confined  to  the  countries  occupied  by  themselves  and  their  kinsmen; 

they  being  able  to  foretell  storm,  tempest,  good  or  poor  crops,  war, 

famine,  etc.,  for  Syria,  Babylonia  and  Susiana  ;  but  unable  to  prophesy 

concerning  Media,   Persia,   Armenia   or   other  countries.     Like   our 


Chaldee 

8  a°s0gy 
Described 

Diodorus. 


BABYLONIAN   CIVILIZATION. 


281 


almanacs,  their  calendars  predicted  the  conditions  of  the  weather  for 
stated  days. 

The  Chaldseans  also  possessed  considerable  mathematical  learning, 
and  their  methods  seem  to  have  been  geometrical.  The  Greek  mathe- 
maticians are  said  to  have  quoted  the  works  of  such  Chaldaeans  as 
Ciden,  Naburianus  and  Sudinus. 

Herodotus,  Diodorus,  Strabo  and  Nicolas  of  Damascus  have  given 
accounts  of  the  Babylonian  manners  and  customs.  Herodotus  tells  us 
that  this  people  wore  a  long  linen  gown  extending  down  to  the  feet,  a 
woolen  gown  or  tunic  over  this,  a  short  cloak  or  cape  of  a  white  color, 
and  shoes  like  those  of  the  Boeotians.  Their  hair  grew  long,  but  was 
confined  to  the  head  by  a  head-band  or  a  turban,  and  they  always  car- 
ried a  walking-stick  with  some  kind  of  a  carving  on  the  handle.  This 
description  doubtless  applies  to  the  higher  and  wealthier  classes.  The 
prophet  Ezekiel  thus  alludes  to  these  people :  "  Girded  with  girdles 
upon  their  loins,  exceeding  in  dyed  attire  upon  their  heads,  all  of  them 
princes  to  look  to,  after  the  manner  of  the  Babylonians  of  Chaldaea, 
the  land  of  their  nativity." 

The  cylinders  represent  the  poor  worshiper  bringing  an  offering  to 
a  god  as  dressed  in  a  tunic  reaching  from  the  shoulder  to  the  knee, 
ornamented  with  a  diagonal  fringe  and  confined  to  the  waist  by  a  belt. 
Rich  worshipers  usually  present  a  goat,  and  are  attired  in  a  tunic, 
with  a  long  robe  without  sleeves  over  it,  and  wear  a  fillet,  or  head- 
band. Figures  of  hunters  attacking  a  lion,  a  man  accompanying  a 
dog,  and  a  warrior  conducting  six  captives,  are  represented  on  cylin- 
ders as  dressed  in  short  tunics.  These  tunics  had  no  sleeves,  and  were 
seldom  patterned.  Rich  worshipers  are  sometimes  represented  dressed 
in  coats  without  sleeves,  fringed  down  both  sides,  and  extending  only  a 
little  below  the  knees.  They  have  also  a  fillet  around  the  head. 

The  Babylonians  are,  with  few  exceptions,  represented  with  bare 
feet,  though  the  soldiers  wore  low  boots,  and  the  king  had  a  kind  of 
check-work  patterned  shoe.  Herodotus,  however,  mentions  them  in  his 
time  as  wearing  a  "  peculiar  shoe."  Herodotus  states  that  every  Baby- 
lonian man  carried  a  seal  and  a  walking-stick. 

The  king  wore  a  long  gown,  reaching  to  the  feet,  and  elaborately 
patterned  and  fringed.  Over  this  he  had  a  close-fitting  sleeved  vest, 
reaching  to  the  knees,  and  ending  in  a  set  of  heavy  tassels.  The  girdle 
was  worn  outside  the  outer  vest,  and  in  war  the  king  carried  besides  two 
cross-belts.  Both  the  upper  and  under  vests  were  elegantly  embroid- 
ered. From  the  girdle  depended  in  front  a  heavy  tassel  fastened  by 
a  cord. 

The  Babylonian  monarch  wore  a  remarkable  tiara,  it  being  exceed- 
ingly high,  almost  cylindrical,  slightly  tending  to  swell  out  toward  the 


Mathe- 
matics. 


Baby- 
lonian 
Manners 

and 

Customs 
as  given 

by 

Ancient 
Writers. 


Cylinder 
Scenes  of 
Hunters 
and  Wor- 
shipers. 


Royal 
Costume. 


Royal 
Tiara. 


282 


CHALJXEA,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Priestly 
Costume. 


Warlike 
Weapons 

and 
Armor. 


Baby- 
lonian 
Armies 
According 
to  Jewish 
Prophets. 


crown,  which  was  adorned  with  a  row  of  feathers  around  its  whole  cir- 
cumference. The  space  below  was  patterned  with  rosettes,  sacred  trees 
and  mythological  figures.  A  projection  of  feathers  rose  from  the  mid- 
dle of  the  crown,  rounded  at  the  top.  This  head-dress  was  worn  low 
on  the  brow,  and  covered  most  of  the  back  part  of  the  head  of  the 
wearer. 

The  Babylonian  king  also  wore  bracelets.  Nicolas  of  Damascus 
says  that  a  Babylonian  governor  wore  necklaces  and  ear-rings.  The 
priests  wore  a  long  robe  or  gown  with  flounces  and  stripes,  over  which 
they  wore  an  open  jacket.  A  long  riband  or  scarf  hung  down  their 
backs.  They  wore  an  elaborate  crown  or  mitre  on  their  heads,  which 
was  likewise  assigned  to  many  of  the  gods.  Sometimes  a  horned  cap 
was  worn  instead  of  the  mitre.  The  priests  wore  their  heads  un- 
covered in  all  sacrificial  and  ceremonial  acts. 

The  Babylonian  soldiers  were  armed  with  bows  and  arrows,  spears, 
daggers,  maces  or  clubs,  and  battle-axes,  for  weapons  of  offense ;  while 
their  defensive  armor  consisted  of  bronze  helmets,  linen  breastplates 
and  shields.  The  prophet  Ezekiel  mentions  the  shields  and  helmets  of 
the  Babylonians,  and  also  their  battle-axes;  while  Jeremiah  mentions 
their  spears  and  swords,  and  their  breastplates.  The  favorite  weapon 
of  the  Babylonians  was  the  bow,  as  attested  by  the  Old  Testament  and 
the  native  monuments.  The  figure  of  a  king  is  represented  as  carry- 
ing a  bow;  while  the  soldier  conducting  captives  has  a  bow,  an  arrow 
and  a  quiver.  An  old  Chaldsean  monument  represents  a  king  with  a 
bow  and  arrow,  a  club  and  a  dagger.  There  is  a  cylinder  represent- 
ing a  lion  disturbed  in  the  act  of  feasting  off  an  ox  by  two  rustics,  one 
of  whom  attacks  him  in  front  with  a  spear,  while  the  other,  seizing  his 
tail,  assails  him  from  behind  with  an  ax. 

The  Babylonian  armies  consisted  of  chariots,  cavalry  and  infantry. 
The  cylinders  sometimes  represent  a  curious  four-wheeled  car,  drawn 
by  four  horses,  with  a  raised  platform  in  front  and  a  seat  behind  for 
the  driver.  The  Jewish  prophet  Habakkuk,  in  speaking  of  the  Baby- 
lonian cavalry,  said :  "  They  are  terrible  and  dreadful."  He  also 
said :  "  Their  horses  also  are  swifter  than  the  leopards,  and  are  more 
fierce  than  the  evening  wolves ;  and  their  horsemen  shall  spread  them- 
selves, and  their  horsemen  shall  come  from  far;  they  shall  fly  as  the 
eagle  that  hasteth  to  eat."  Ezekiel,  alluding  to  "  the  Babylonians 
and  all  of  the  Chaldseans,"  referred  to  the  "  desirable  young  men,  cap- 
tains and  rulers,  great  lords  and  renowned;  all  of  them  riding  upon 
horses."  Jeremiah  spoke  of  the  Babylonian  chariots  and  cavalry  thus : 
"  Behold,  he  shall  come  up  as  clouds,  and  his  chariots  shall  be  as  a 
whirlwind;  his  horses  are  swifter  than  eagles.  Woe  unto  us!  for  we 
are  spoiled." 


BABYLONIAN    CIVILIZATION. 


283 


In  the  army  of  Xerxes  the  Babylonians  were  infantry,  but  Darius, 
in  the  Behistun  Inscription,  alludes  to  Babylonian  horsemen;  and  the 
Babylonian  armies  which  overran  Syria,  Palestine  and  Egypt  consisted 
chiefly  of  cavalry.  The  Babylonian  armies,  like  the  Persian,  con- 
sisted of  immense  hosts,  poorly  disciplined,  comprising,  besides  native 
Babylonian  troops,  contingents  from  the  subject  nations,  such  as  Su- 
sianians,  Shuhites,  Assyrians  and  others.  They  marched  with  great 
noise  and  tumult,  scattering  over  the  country  invaded,  plundering  and 
destroying  on  every  side.  They  assailed  the  weaker  towns  with  bat- 
tering-rams, and  raised  mounds  before  the  stronger  to  the  top  of  the 
walls,  which  they  then  easily  scaled  or  broke  down.  They  were  noted 
for  their  determined  persistence  and  unyielding  perseverance  in  sieges, 
only  taking  Jerusalem  in  the  third  year,  and  Tyre  in  the  fourteenth. 
Omens  often  decided  which  country  was  to  be  next  attacked. 

Diodorus  described  the  Babylonian  priests  as  a  caste  devoted  to  the 
service  of  their  gods  and  to  the  study  of  philosophy.  He  says  that 
they  were  highly  esteemed  by  the  people.  They  guarded  the  temples 
and  served  at  the  altars  of  the  gods,  to  interpret  dreams  and  prodigies, 
to  understand  omens,  to  read  the  warnings  of  the  stars,  and  to  inform 
men  how  to  escape  the  perils  with  which  they  were  thus  menaced,  by 
purifications,  incantations  and  sacrifices.  No  one  questioned  their  tra- 
ditional knowledge  transmitted  from  father  to  son.  The  people  con- 
sidered them  as  in  possession  of  a  wisdom  of  the  highest  importance 
to  the  human  race. 

The  Book  of  Daniel  describes  a  class  of  "  wise  men  "  at  Babylon, 
chief  of  which  were  the  Chaldaeans,  who  are  noted  for  a  particular 
"  learning  "  and  a  particular  "  tongue,"  and  who  expounded  dreams 
and  prodigies.  They  were  in  high  favor  with  the  king,  who  frequently 
consulted  them.  These  "  wise  men  "  were  of  four  classes,  according 
to  their  occupations — "  Chaldseans,  magicians,  astrologers  and  sooth- 
sayers." Jews  were  enrolled  among  these  "  wise  men,"  and  the  prophet 
Daniel  was  made  chief  of  the  whole  order  by  King  Nebuchadnezzar. 
As  a  distinct  order,  these  "  wise  men  "  had  considerable  power  in  the 
state.  They  had  direct  communication  with  the  king,  and  were  be- 
lieved to  be  endowed  with  a  supernatural  power  to  foretell  future 
events,  as  well  as  in  possession  of  human  learning;  and  some  of  them 
held  high  civil  offices. 

Herodotus  mentions  the  Chaldaeans  as  "  priests  " ;  and  Strabo  says 
that  they  were  "  philosophers,"  employed  chiefly  in  astronomy. 
Strabo  also  states  that  they  were  divided  into  sects,  differing  from  each 
other  in  their  doctrines.  The  Babylonian  priests  were  an  order,  not 
a  caste;  and,  as  in  Egypt  and  Persia,  they  were  an  esteemed  and  im- 
portant class.  Priests  may  have  brought  up  their  sons  to  their  own 
1—21 


Methods 
of  War- 
fare. 


Marches 

and 
Sieges. 


Baby- 
lonian 
Priests. 


"Wise 
Men  "and 
Chal- 
daeans 

as 
Described 

by 
Daniel. 


Daniel 

and  Other 

Jews 

among 

"  Wise 

Men." 


Chal- 
daean 
Priests 
Described 
by  Herod- 
otus and 
Strabo. 


S84 


CHAUXEA,  ASSYRIA,  BABYLONIA. 


Their 
Learning. 


Their 
Social 
Rank. 


Baby- 
lonian 
Manufac- 
tures and 
Com- 
merce. 


Authority 

of 

Ezekiel, 

Isaiahand 

JEachy- 

lus. 


Imports. 


Strabo's 
Author- 
ity. 


occupation,  but  other*  persons,  even  foreigners,  were  admitted  to  the 
order  and  to  its  highest  privileges.  The  Babylonian  priesthood  was  a 
sacerdotal  and  learned  body,  having  a  literature  written  in  a  peculiar 
language,  which  its  members  were  obliged  to  study.  This  language 
and  literature  were  inherited  from  the  times  of  the  early  Chaldaean 
Empire,  and  were  thus  transmitted  to  Assyria  and  later  Babylonia. 

They  professed  especially  a  knowledge  of  astronomy,  astrology  and 
mythology,  and  may  have  also  studied  history,  chronology,  grammar, 
law  and  natural  science.  They  were  dispersed  over  the  country,  but 
had  special  seats  of  learning  at  Erech,  or  Orchoe  (now  Warka),  at 
Borsippa  (the  site  of  the  present  Birs-i-Nimrud),  and  at  other  places. 
They  were  diligent  and  ingenious  students,  divided  into  sects  with  dif- 
ferent doctrines,  and  given  to  speculation.  They  particularly  culti- 
vated astronomy  with  success,  and  the  value  of  their  knowledge  in  this 
science  was  afterwards  acknowledged  by  the  Greeks. 

The  priests  stood  high  socially,  having  access  to  the  king,  and  being 
feared  and  respected  by  the  people.  They  were  made  wealthy  by  the 
offerings  of  the  faithful,  and  their  occupation  as  interpreters  of  the 
will  of  the  gods  secured  them  influence.  The  civil  offices  frequently 
conferred  upon  them  added  to  their  wealth  and  to  the  esteem  in  which 
they  were  held. 

The  Babylonians  were  a  great  manufacturing  and  commercial  peo- 
ple. Their  commerce  was  both  foreign  and  domestic.  Many  were 
engaged  in  manufacturing  the  textile  fabrics  for  which  the  Baby- 
lonians were  so  famous,  especially  carpets  and  muslins.  Many  were 
engaged  as  engravers  on  hard  stone,  with  which  the  seal  carried  by 
every  Babylonian  was  adorned.  The  trades  and  handicrafts  commonly 
practiced  in  the  East  also  flourished  in  Babylonia.  An  active  and 
constant  import  and  export  trade  was  kept  up.  The  Jewish  prophet 
Ezekiel  called  Babylonia  "  a  land  of  traffic,"  and  Babylon  "  a  city  of 
merchants."  Isaiah  said  that  "  the  cry  of  the  Chaldaeans  "  was  "  in 
their  ships."  The  monuments  show  that  the  primitive  Chaldaeans  navi- 
gated the  Persian  Gulf,  and  ^Eschylus  calls  the  Babylonians  in  the 
army  of  Xerxes  "  navigators  of  ships." 

The  Babylonians  imported  frankincense  from  Arabia;  pearls,  cot- 
ton, and  wood  for  walking-sticks  from  the  Persian  Gulf;  dogs  and 
gems  from  India.  Strabo  says  that  they  had  a  colony  called  Gerra, 
on  the  Arabian  coast  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  this  colony  was  a  great 
emporium  through  which  the  Babylonian  trade  to  the  north  and  the 
south  was  conducted.  The  products  of  Western  Asia  were  carried 
down  into  Babylonia  by  the  courses  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates. 
Wine,  gems,  emery  and  building  stone  were  imported  from  Armenia 
and  Upper  Mesopotamia ;  tin  and  copper  from  Phoenicia ;  and  fine  wool, 


BABYLONIAN   CIVILIZATION. 


285 


lapis-lazuli,  silk,  gold  and  ivory  from  Media  and  the  distant  East. 
But  these  articles  were  brought  to  Babylon  mainly  by  foreign  mer- 
chants. The  Armenians  and  Phoenicians,  and  perhaps  also  the  Greeks, 
used  the  route  of  the  Euphrates  for  the  transportation  of  goods.  The 
Assyrians,  the  Medes  and  the  Paretaceni  floated  their  goods  down  the 
Tigris  and  its  tributaries. 

A  great  portion  of  the  Babylonian  people  were  engaged  in  agri-    Agricul- 
culture.     Babylonia  was  chiefly  a  grain-producing  country,  the  won-       *ure- 
derful  fertility  of  whose  soil  has  been  noted  in  our  account  of  ancient 
Chaldaea.     The  deep  and  rich  alluvium  was  cultivated  with  the  greatest 
care.     As  before  mentioned,  wheat,  barley,  millet  and  sesame  flourished 
in  luxuriant  abundance.     By  means  of  canals  the  country  was  irri- 
gated.    Groves  of  date-palm  furnished  the  chief  article  of  food.     Lit-        The 
tie  beyond  a  proper  water  supply  was  needed  for  the  cultivation  of  the 
date.     The  female  palm-tree  can  only  produce  fruit  by  the  pollen  of 
the  male  palm  coming  in  contact  with  its  blossoms.     Herodotus  states   Authority 
that  the  Babylonians  tied  the  branches  of  the  male  to  those  of  the  of 
female  palm. 

Artificial  means  increased  the  yield  of  the  date-palm  in  Babylonia. 
The  seeds  and  cuttings  were  planted  in  a  sandy  soil,  to  which  salt  was 
applied  if  necessary.  Abundant  watering  was  required,  and  trans- 
plantation was  resorted  to  at  the  close  of  the  first  and  second  year. 
The  ground  was  broken  with  a  plow  drawn  by  two  oxen. 

Dates  were  the  chief  food  of  the  Babylonians,  and  on  this  fruit  and      Foods, 
goats*  milk  the  poorer  class  mainly  subsisted.     Palm-wine  was  an  oc-        "i^8 
casional  beverage.     In  the  marshy  regions  of  the  South  fish  was  the   Banquets, 
principal  food  of  some  tribes  of  Chaldasans.     The  wealthy  indulged  in 
luxuries,  such  as  wheat  bread,  meats,  luscious  fruits,  fish,  game  and 
imported  wine.     The  rich  also  drank  to  excess.     They  had  magnificent 
banquets,  which  usually  ended  in  drunkenness.     Bands  of  musicians 
entertained  the  guests.     The  display  of  gold  and  silver  plate,  the  mag- 
nificent dresses  of  the  guests,  the  beautiful  carpets  and  hangings,  the 
many  attendants,  all  contributed  to  the  splendor  of  the  scene. 

The  Babylonians  and  Susianians  were  both  fond  of  music.     Ctesias     Music, 
and  Daniel  testify  to  the  musical  taste  of  the  Babylonians.     Ctesias   Authority 
states  that  Annarus,  or  Nannarus,  a  Babylonian  noble,  enlivened  a  ban-  °  ^| 
quet  with  the  music  of  a  band  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  women,  some     Daniel. 
singing  and  others  playing  on  the  pipe,  the  harp  and  the  psaltery. 
The  prophet  Daniel  assigns  the  same  instruments  to  the  Babylonians, 
along  with  the  horn,  the  sambuca  and  the  symphonia,  or  "  symphony." 
The  Babylonians  also  used  music  in  their  religious  ceremonies.     Daniel 
mentions  their  musical  instruments  in  connection  with  Nebuchadnez- 
zar's dedication  of  a  gigantic  idol  of  gold,  when  the  worshipers  were 


286 


CHALD^EA,   ASSYRIA,   BABYLONIA. 


Baby- 
lonian 
Women. 

Authority 
of  Herod- 
otus 
and  the 
Baby- 
lonian 
Cylin- 
ders. 


Tools  and 
Furni- 
ture. 


obliged  to  prostrate  themselves  before  the  idol  upon  hearing  the  music 
begin. 

Women  were  not  kept  in  the  same  seclusion  in  Babylonia  as  in  other 
Oriental  countries,  as  is  apparent  from  the  two  curious  customs  men- 
tioned by  Herodotus — the  sale  of  the  marriageable  maidens  at  public 
auction  to  the  highest  bidder,  and  the  religious  prostitution  enjoined 
in  the  worship  of  Beltis.  On  the  Babylonian  cylinders  are  frequently 
found  images  of  a  goddess  suckling  a  child,  and  also  many  represen- 
tations of  women  engaged  in  different  employments.  Sometimes  they 
are  represented  in  a  procession  visiting  the  shrine  of  a  goddess,  and 
sometimes  they  are  seen  among  birds  and  flowers  in  a  garden,  plucking 
the  fruit  from  dwarf  palms  and  handing  it  to  one  another.  They  are 
dressed  in  a  long  but  scanty  robe  extending  to  the  feet,  and  wear  a 
fillet,  or  band,  round  the  head,  confining  the  hair,  which  is  turned  back 
behind  the  head,  and  tied  by  a  riband,  or  held  up  by  the  fillet.  The 
modeled  clay  image  represents  bracelets  and  ear-rings  as  worn  by  the 
women.  A  single  representation  of  a  priestess  exhibits  that  class  as 
wearing  petticoats  only,  thus  exposing  the  entire  body  above  the 
waist. 

A  few  Babylonian  cylinders  have  been  found  representing  saws  and 
hatchets,  stools,  chairs,  tables,  and  stands  for  water-jars.  The  Baby- 
lonian furniture  was  made  from  the  wood  of  the  palm-tree. 


Chaldaean 

Cos- 
mogony 
as  Related 

by 
Berosus. 


SECTION  X.— CHALDEE-ASSYRO-BABYLONIAN  COS- 
MOGONY AND  RELIGION. 

BEROSUS  begins  his  history  by  recounting  the  Chaldaean  traditions 
regarding  the  creation  of  the  world  and  the  origin  of  the  human  race. 
The  following  is  an  account  of  the  Chaldaean  cosmogony :  "  In  the 
beginning  all  was  darkness  and  water,  and  therein  were  generated  mon- 
strous animals  of  strange  and  peculiar  forms.  There  were  men  with 
two  wings,  and  some  even  with  four,  and  with  two  faces;  and  others 
with  two  heads,  a  man's  and  a  woman's,  on  one  body ;  and  there  were 
men  with  the  heads  and  horns  of  goats,  and  men  with  hoofs  like  horses, 
and  some  with  the  upper  parts  of  a  man  joined  to  the  lower  parts  of  a 
horse,  like  centaurs ;  and  there  were  bulls  with  human  heads,  dogs  with 
four  bodies  and  with  fishes'  tails,  men  and  horses  with  dogs'  heads, 
creatures  with  the  heads  and  bodies  of  horses,  but  with  the  tails  of 
fish,  and  other  animals  mixing  the  forms  of  various  beasts.  Moreover, 
there  were  monstrous  fish  and  reptiles  and  serpents,  and  divers  other 
creatures,  which  had  borrowed  something  from  each  other's  shapes ; 
of  all  which  the  likenesses  are  still  preserved  in  the  temple  of  Bel.  A 


CHALDEE-ASSYRO-BABYLONIAN   COSMOGONY   AND   RELIGION. 


287 


woman  ruleth  them  all,  by  name  Omorka,  which  is  in  Chaldee  Thalatth, 
and  in  Greek  Thalassa  (or  '  the  sea  ').  Then  Bel  appeared,  and  split 
the  woman  in  twain;  and  of  the  one  half  of  her  he  made  the  heaven 
and  of  the  other  half  the  earth ;  and  the  beasts  that  were  in  her  he 
caused  to  perish.  And  he  split  the  darkness,  and  divided  the  heaven 
and  the  earth  asunder,  and  put  the  world  in  order;  and  the  animals 
that  could  not  bear  the  light  perished.  Bel,  upon  this,  seeing  that 
the  earth  was  desolate,  yet  teeming  with  productive  power,  commanded 
one  of  the  gods  to  cut  off  his  head,  and  to  mix  the  blood  which  flowed 
forth  with  earth,  and  form  men  therewith,  and  beasts  that  could  bear 
the  light.  So  man  was  made,  and  was  intelligent,  being  a  partaker 
of  the  divine  wisdom.  Likewise  Bel  made  the  stars,  and  the  sun  and 
moon,  and  the  five  planets." 

There  is  a  remarkable  likeness  between  certain  Chaldaean  and  Jewish 
legends,  such  as  the  traditions  of  the  destruction  of  mankind  by  a 
great  Flood,  because  of  its  wickedness,  and  the  Tower  of  Babel  and 
dispersion  of  the  human  race.  Among  some  clay  tablets  brought  from 
Assyria  to  London  by  Mr.  George  Smith  are  a  series  of  fragments 
which,  joined  to  some  smaller  pieces  in  the  British  Museum  collection, 
give  the  history  of  the  world  from  the  Creation  down  to  some  period 
after  the  fall  of  man.  Mr.  Smith  succeeded  in  translating  these  le- 
gends in  1875,  and  the  following  is  his  brief  account  of  the  contents 
of  the  tablets :  "  Whatever  the  primitive  account  may  have  been  from 
which  the  earlier  part  of  the  Book  of  Genesis  was  copied,  it  is  evident 
that  the  brief  narrative  given  in  the  Pentateuch  omits  a  number  of  in- 
cidents and  explanations — for  instance,  as  to  the  origin  of  evil,  the 
fall  of  the  angels,  the  wickedness  of  the  serpent,  etc.  Such  points  as 
these  are  included  in  the  cuneiform  narrative." 

Mr.  Smith  then  proceeds  to  give  a  sketch  of  the  Assyrian  cosmog- 
ony, as  follows :  "  The  narrative  on  the  Assyrian  tablets  commences 
with  a  description  of  the  period  before  the  world  was  created,  when 
there  existed  a  chaos  or  confusion.  The  desolate  and  empty  state  of 
the  universe  and  the  generation  by  chaos  of  monsters  are  vividly  given. 
The  chaos  is  presided  over  by  a  female  power  named  Tisalat  and  Tia- 
mat,  corresponding  to  the  Thalatth  of  Berosus ;  but  as  it  proceeds  the 
Assyrian  account  agrees  rather  with  the  Bible  than  with  the  short 
account  from  Berosus.  We  are  told,  in  the  inscriptions,  of  the  fall 
of  the  celestial  being  who  appears  to  correspond  to  Satan.  In  his 
ambition  he  raises  his  hand  against  the  sactuary  of  the  God  of  heaven, 
and  the  description  of  him  is  really  magnificent.  He  is  represented 
riding  in  a  chariot  through  celestial  space,  surrounded  by  the  storms, 
with  the  lightning  playing  before  him,  and  wielding  a  thunderbolt  as 
a  weapon.  This  rebellion  leads  to  a  war  in  heaven  and  the  conquest 


Chaldaean 

and 

Jewish 

Legends. 


Assyrian 
Cosmog- 
ony as 
Revealed 

by 
Tablets 


288 


CHALD^A,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Antedilu- 
vian 
History 

by 
Berosus. 


Chaldaean 

Account 

of  the 

Deluge  as 

Narrated 

,  by 
Berosus. 


of  the  powers  of  evil,  the  gods  in  due  course  creating  the  universe  in 
stages,  as  in  the  Mosaic  narrative,  surveying  each  step  of  the  work 
and  pronouncing  it  good.  The  divine  work  culminates  in  the  creation 
of  man,  who  is  made  upright  and  free  from  evil,  and  endowed  by  the 
gods  with  the  noble  faculty  of  speech.  The  Deity  then  delivers  a  long 
address  to  the  newly-created  being,  instructing  him  in  all  his  duties 
and  privileges,  and  pointing  out  the  glory  of  his  state.  But  this  con- 
dition of  blessing  does  not  last  long  before  man,  yielding  to  tempta- 
tion, falls;  and  the  Deity  then  pronounces  upon  him  a  terrible  curse, 
invoking  on  his  head  all  the  evils  which  have  since  afflicted  humanity." 

After  his  mythical  account  of  the  Creation,  Berosus  mentions  a 
sea-monster,  half  man  and  half  fish,  named  Oan,  who  came  out  of  the 
deep  to  teach  men  language  and  letters,  astronomy,  the  arts,  agricul- 
ture and  all  that  pertains  to  civilization.  During  the  fabulous  reigns 
of  the  ten  antediluvian  kings  of  Chaldsea,  there  appeared  at  different 
times  six  other  fish-monsters  who,  like  Oan,  instructed  mankind.  The 
ten  kings  whom  Berosus  mentions  as  reigning  in  Chaldaea  during  the 
antediluvian  period,  and  who  correspond  in  number  with  the  ten  patri- 
archs of  the  same  period  mentioned  in  the  Mosaic  record,  will  now 
be  named  with  the  lengths  of  their  reigns.  Alorus,  a  Chaldaean, 
reigned  36,000  years;  Aloparus,  son  of  Alorus,  10,800  years;  Al- 
melon,  a  native  of  Sippara,  46,800  years;  Ammenon,  a  Chaldsean, 
43,200  years;  Amegalarus,  of  Sippara,  64,800  years;  Daonus,  of 
Sippara,  36,000  years ;  Edorankhus,  of  Sippara,  64,800  years ; 
Amempsinus,  a  Chaldasan,  36,000  years;  Otiartes,  a  Chaldaean,  28,000 
years;  and  Xisuthrus,  the  Chaldaean  Noah,  64,800  years — the  ten 
reigns  covering  a  period  of  432,000  years. 

The  Chaldaean  or  Babylonian  account  of  the  Deluge,  as  narrated 
by  Berosus,  is  as  follows :  "  The  god  Bel  appeared  to  Xisuthrus 
(Noah)  in  a  dream,  and  warned  him  that  on  the  fifteenth  day  of  the 
month  Daesius  mankind  would  be  destroyed  by  a  deluge.  He  bade 
him  bury  in  Sippara,  the  City  of  the  Sun,  the  extant  writings,  first 
and  last;  and  build  a  ship,  and  enter  therein  with  his  family  and  his 
close  friends ;  and  furnish  it  with  meat  and  drink ;  and  place  on  board 
winged  fowl,  and  four-footed  beasts  of  the  earth;  and  when  all  was 
ready,  set  sail.  Xisuthrus  asked  *  Whither  he  was  to  sail? '  and  was 
told,  '  To  the  gods,  with  a  prayer  that  it  might  fare  well  with  man- 
kind.' Then  Xisuthrus  was  not  disobedient  to  the  vision,  but  built 
a  ship  fifteen  stadia  (3125  feet)  in  length,  and  six  stadia  (1250  feet) 
in  breadth;  and  collected  all  that  had  been  commanded  him,  and  put 
his  wife  and  children  and  close  friends  on  board.  The  flood  came; 
and  as  soon  as  it  ceased,  Xisuthrus  let  loose  some  birds,  which,  finding 
neither  food  nor  a  place  where  they  could  rest,  came  back  to  the  ark. 


CHALDEE-ASSYRO-BABYLONIAN   COSMOGONY   AND   RELIGION. 

After  some  days  he  again  sent  out  the  birds,  which  again  returned 
to  the  ark,  but  with  feet  covered  with  mud.  Sent  out  a  third  time, 
the  birds  returned  no  more,  and  Xisuthrus  knew  that  land  had  reap- 
peared; so  he  removed  some  of  the  covering  of  the  ark,  and  looked, 
and  behold !  the  vessel  had  grounded  on  a  mountain.  Then  Xisuthrus 
went  forth  with  his  wife  and  his  daughter,  and  his  pilot,  and  fell  down 
and  worshiped  the  earth,  and  built  an  altar,  and  offered  sacrifice  to 
the  gods;  after  which  he  disappeared  from  sight,  together  with  those 
who  had  accompanied  him.  They  who  had  remained  in  the  ark  and 
not  gone  forth  with  Xisuthrus,  now  left  it  and  searched  for  him,  and 
shouted  out  his  name;  but  Xisuthrus  was  not  seen  any  more.  Only 
his  voice  answered  them  out  of  the  air,  saying,  '  Worship  the  gods ; 
for  because  I  worshiped  them,  am  I  gone  to  dwell  with  the  gods;  and 
they  who  were  with  me  have  shared  the  same  honor.'  And  he  bade 
them  return  to  Babylon,  and  recover  the  writings  buried  at  Sippara, 
and  make  them  known  among  men ;  and  he  told  them  that  the  land 
in  which  they  then  were  was  Armenia.  So  they,  when  they  had  heard 
all,  sacrificed  to  the  gods  and  went  their  way  on  foot  to  Babylon,  and, 
having  reached  it,  recovered  the  buried  writings  from  Sippara,  and 
built  many  cities  and  temples,  and  restored  Babylon.  Some  portion 
of  the  ark  still  continues  in  Armenia,  in  the  Gordiaean  (Kurdish)  moun- 
tains; and  persons  scrape  off  the  bitumen  from  it  to  bring  away,  and 
this  they  use  as  a  remedy  to  avert  misfortunes." 

The  Assyrian  inscriptions  discovered  by  George  Smith  give  an  ac-    Assyrian 
count  of  the  Deluge  much  resembling  the  narrative  of  the  same  event     Account 
by  Berosus.     Among  the  ruins  of  the  palace  of  the  Assyrian  king  Deluge  as 
Asshur-pani-pal,  tablets  have  been  discovered  from  which  the  account    D^yCj^s. 
of  the  Deluge  has  been  deciphered,  agreeing  in  some  particulars  with      scrip- 
the  Chaldaean  tradition.     The  legend  found  recorded  on  the  tablets      "ons- 
states  that  the  god  Hea  commanded  Sisit  to  build  a  ship  of  specified 
size    and    to    launch    it    on    the    deep,    as    he    intended    to    destroy 
the    wicked.     Then    Hea    said :    "  When    the    flood    comes    which    I . 
will    send    thou    shalt    enter    the    ship,    and    into    the    midst    of    it 
thou    shalt   bring   thy    corn,    thy    goods,    thy    gods,    thy    gold   and 
silver,  thy  slaves  male  and  female,  the  sons  of  the  army,  the  wild  and 
tame  animals;  and  all  that  thou  hearest  thou  shalt  do.     And   Sisit 
gathered  together  all  his  possessions  of  silver  and  gold,  all  that  he 
had  of  the  seeds  of  life,  and  caused  all  of  his  slaves,  male  and  female, 
to  go  into  the  ship.     The  wild  and  tame  beasts  of  the  field  also  he 
caused  to  enter,  and  all  the  sons  of  the  army.     And  Shamas,  the  Sun- 
god,  made  a  flood,  and  said :    '  I  will  cause  rain  to  fall  heavily  from 
heaven ;  go  into  the  ship  and  shut  the  door.'     Overcome  with  fear  Sisit 
entered  into  the  ship,  and  on  the  morning  of  the  day  fixed  by  Shamas 
VOL.  1. — 19 


290  CHALD^A,   ASSYRIA,   BABYLONIA. 

the  storm  began  to  blow  from  the  ends  of  heaven,  and  Vul  thundered 
in  the  midst  of  heaven,  and  Nebo  came  forth,  and  over  the  mountains 
and  plains  came  the  gods,  and  Nergal  the  Destroyer  overthrew,  and 
Nin  came  forth  and  dashed  down ;  the  gods  made  ruin ;  in  their  bright- 
ness they  swept  over  the  earth.  The  storm  went  over  the  nations ;  the 
flood  of  Vul  reached  up  to  heaven;  brother  did  not  see  brother;  the 
lightsome  earth  became  a  desert,  and  the  flood  destroyed  all  living 
things  from  the  face  of  the  earth.  Even  the  gods  were  afraid  of  the 
storm,  and  sought  refuge  in  the  heaven  of  Ana;  like  hounds  drawing 
in  their  tails,  the  gods  seated  themselves  on  their  thrones,  and  Ishtar, 
the  great  goddess,  spake :  '  The  world  has  turned  to  sin,  and  there- 
fore I  have  proclaimed  destruction.  I  have  begotten  men,  and  now 
they  fill  the  sea  like  the  children  of  fishes.'  And  the  gods  upon  their 
seats  wept  with  her.  On  the  seventh  day  the  storm  abated,  which  had 
destroyed  like  an  earthquake,  and  the  sea  began  to  dry.  Sisit  per- 
ceived the  movement  of  the  sea.  Like  reeds  floated  the  corpses  of  the 
evil-doers  and  all  who  had  turned  to  sin.  Then  Sisit  opened  the  win- 
dow, and  the  light  fell  upon  his  face,  and  the  ship  was  stayed  upon 
Mount  Nizir,  and  could  not  pass  over  it.  Then  on  the  seventh  day 
Sisit  sent  forth  a  dove,  but  she  found  no  place  of  rest,  and  returned. 
Then  he  sent  a  swallow,  which  also  returned ;  and  again  a  raven,  which 
saw  the  corpses  in  the  water  and  ate  them,  and  returned  no  more. 
Then  Sisit  released  the  beasts  to  the  four  winds  of  heaven,  and  poured 
a  libation,  and  built  an  altar  upon  the  top  of  the  mountain,  and  cut 
seven  herbs,  and  the  sweet  savor  of  the  sacrifice  caused  the  gods  to 
assemble,  and  Sisit  prayed  that  Bel  might  not  come  to  the  altar.  For 
Bel  had  made  the  storm  and  sunk  the  people  in  the  deep,  and  wished 
in  his  anger  to  destroy  the  ship,  and  allow  no  man  to  escape.  Nin 
opened  his  mouth,  and  spoke  to  the  warrior  Bel :  *  Who  would  then 
be  left  ?  '  And  Hea  spoke  to  him :  '  Captain  of  the  gods,  instead  of 
the  storm  let  lions  and  leopards  increase,  and  diminish  mankind;  let 
famine  and  pestilence  desolate  the  land  and  destroy  mankind.'  When 
the  sentence  of  the  gods  was  passed,  Bel  came  into  the  midst  of  the 
ship  and  took  Sisit  by  the  hand  and  conducted  him  forth,  and  caused 
his  wife  to  be  brought  to  his  side,  and  purified  the  earth,  and  made  a 
covenant;  and  Sisit  and  his  wife  and  his  people  were  carried  away 
like  gods,  and  Sisit  dwelt  in  a  distant  land  at  the  mouth  of  the  rivers." 
Tradi-  Traditions  of  a  great  Flood  have  been  prevalent  in  all  countries 
Great  subject  to  overflows  of  rivers,  with  the  exception  of  Egypt,  where  the 
Flood>  annual  inundation  was  so  regular.  Legends  like  those  of  Chaldsea 
and  Assyria  have  been  discovered  among  the  inhabitants  of  Armenia, 
Greece,  India  and  all  countries  exposed  to  dangerous  floods.  The 
account  of  the  Deluge  as  narrated  by  Moses  is  a  record  of  the  same 


CHALDEE-ASSYIIO-BABYLONIAN    COSMOGONY   AND    RELIGION. 

story  as  given  by  Berosus  and  as  found  inscribed  upon  the  Assyrian 
tablets.  It  is  not  known  when  the  great  Flood  occurred  in  Chaldasa, 
the  dates  assigned  by  Berosus  being  fabulous,  as  are  his  accounts  of  the 
antediluvian  dynasty  and  the  first  postdiluvian  dynasty  in  Chaldsea. 

"  In  a  valuable  contribution  to  the  London  Academy,  in  the  year     Phoeni- 
1875,  Mr.  Sayce  showed  that  the  Phoenician  legends  form,  as  it  were,    Legends. 
the  link  between  the  Chaldsean  and  the  Hebrew  so  far  as  the  so-called 
Elohistic  portion  of  Genesis  is  concerned;  this  being  especially  notice- 
able in  the  legend  of  the  Creation  and  the  sacrifice  of  Isaac.     Mr. 
Sayce  also  explained  the  very  close  resemblance  between  the  Baby- 
lonian and  Jewish  legends  of  the  Garden  of  Eden,  the  Deluge  and 
the  Tower  of  Babel,  the  Phoenician  analogies  failing  us  here  alto- 
gether." 

The  following  is  the  Chaldaean  account  of  the  Tower  of  Babel,  as  Chaldaean 
related  by  Berosus  :    "  The  earth  was  still  of  one  language,  when  the     *££%££*' 
primitive  men,  who  were   proud  of  their  strength  and  stature,  and  Tower  of 
despised  the  gods  as  their  inferiors,  erected  a  tower  of  vast  height,  in    Q^en  £y 
order  that  they  might  mount  to  heaven.     And  the  tower  was  now  near    Berosus. 
to  heaven,  when  the  gods  caused  the  winds  to  blow  and  overturned 
the  structure  upon  the  men,  and  made  them  speak  with  divers  tongues  ; 
whereupon  the  city  was  called  Babylon." 

Says  Rawlinson,  concerning  Chaldasan  mythology  :    "  The  striking 


resemblance  of  the  Chaldasan  system  to  that  of  classical  mythology      son  on 

j  j  oJ    Chaldsean 

seems  worthy  of  particular  attention.     This  resemblance  is  too  gen-      Myth- 

eral,  and  too  close  in  some  respects,  to  allow  of  the  supposition  that  °logy- 
mere  accident  has  produced  the  coincidence.  In  the  Pantheons  of 
Greece  and  Rome,  and  in  that  of  Chaldasa,  the  same  general  grouping 
is  to  be  recognized;  the  same  genealogical  succession  is  not  unfre- 
quently  to  be  traced;  and  in  some  cases  even  the  familiar  names  and 
titles  of  classical  divinities  admit  of  the  most  curious  illustrations  and 
explanations  from  Chaldaean  sources.  We  can  scarcely  doubt  but 
that,  in  some  way  or  other,  there  was  a  communication  of  beliefs  —  a 
passage  in  very  early  times,  from  the  shores  of  the  Persian  Gulf  to 
the  lands  washed  by  the  Mediterranean,  of  mythological  notions  and 
ideas.  It  is  a  probable  conjecture  that  *  among  the  primitive  tribes 
who  dwelt  on  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  when  the  cuneiform  alphabet 
was  invented,  and  when  such  writing  was  first  applied  to  the  purposes 
of  religion,  a  Scythic  or  Scytho-  Aryan  race  existed,  who  subsequently 
migrated  to  Europe  and  brought  with  them  those  mythical  traditions 
which,  as  objects  of  popular  belief,  had  been  mixed  up  in  the  nascent 
literature  of  their  native  country,'  and  that  these  traditions  were 
passed  on  to  the  classical  nations,  who  were  in  part  descended  from 
this  Scythic  or  Scytho-Aryan  people." 


CHALD^A,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 

Chaldaean        The  religion  of  Chaldaea,  or  Babylonia,  was  from  the  most  ancient 
Poly0     times  a   gross  polytheism,  and  was  a  kind  of  Sabaean   worship,  the 


theism,  heavenly  bodies  being  objects  of  adoration  and  represented  by  their 
special  deities.  Local  divinities  abounded,  every  town  being  under 
the  protection  of  some  particular  deity.  The  Chaldaean  gods  and 
goddesses  therefore  dwelt  in  the  sky.  The  deities  of  the  first  order 
were  grouped  as  follows  :  At  the  head  of  the  Chaldaean  Pantheon  stood 
El,  or  II,  or  Ra;  after  whom  was  named  the  great  city,  Babylon,  or 
Bab-El,  meaning  Gate  of  EL  Next  to  the  chief  deity  was  a  triad 
of  gods  —  Ana,  or  Ann;  Bil,  or  Bel,  or  Belus;  and  Hea,  or  Hoa  —  who 
corresponded  to  the  classical  Pluto,  Jupiter  and  Neptune.  Each  of 
these  three  gods  was  accompanied  by  a  female  principle,  or  wife  ; 
Anat,  or  Anata,  being  the  wife  of  Ana  ;  Mulita,  or  Beltis,  the  wife  of 
Bel  ;  and  Davkina,  the  wife  of  Hoa.  These  were  followed  by  a  second 
triad  of  gods,  consisting  of  Sin,  or  HurJci,  the  Moon-god;  San,  or 
Sansi,  the  Sun-god;  and  Vul,  or  Iva,  or  Bin,  the  Air-god.  Each  of 
this  second  triad  was  also  accompanied  by  a  feminine  power,  or  wife; 
a  goddess  called  "  the  Great  Lady,"  whose  name  is  uncertain,  being 
the  consort  of  Sin,  or  Hurki  ;  Gula,  or  Anunit,  the  companion  of  San  ; 
and  STiala,  or  Tola,  the  wife  of  Vul.  Next  to  these  great  gods  and 
goddesses  at  the  head  of  the  Pantheon  were  a  group  of  five  minor 
deities  representing  the  five  planets  then  known  —  Nin,  or  Ninip  (Sat- 
urn), Merodach  (Jupiter),  Nergal  (Mars),  Ishtar  (Venus),  and 
Nebo  (Mercury).  All  the  deities  thus  far  named  constituted  the 
principal  gods  and  goddesses,  and  after  them  were  numerous  divini- 
ties of  the  second  and  third  order. 

Relation-  The  chief  Chaldaean  gods  and  goddesses  were  not  all  descended  from 
th  hlGod  ^e  same  parentage,  like  the  Egyptian,  or  the  Greek  or  Roman  deities, 
yet  some  relationship  existed  among  them.  Ana  and  Bel  were  broth- 
ers, the  sons  of  II.  Vul  was  the  son  of  Ana  ;  and  Sin,  or  Hurki,  the 
Moon-god,  was  the  son  of  Bel.  Nebo  and  Merodach  were  sons  of 
Hoa.  Among  the  many  deities  without  parentage  were  II,  the  chief 
god;  Hoa;  San,  the  Sun-god;  Ishtar,  the  planetary  Venus;  and  Ner- 
gal, the  representative  of  the  planet  Mars.  Sometimes  the  relation- 
ship is  confused  and  contradictory  ;  Nin,  the  planetary  Saturn,  being 
represented  as  the  son  and  father  of  Bel,  and  as  the  son  and  husband 
of  Beltis. 

El,  or  n,        El,  or  II,  is  the  root  of  the  well-known  Biblical  Elohvm,  and  also  of 

Chtef  'cod  ^e  Arabic  or  Mohammedan  Allah.     It  is  the  name  which  Diodorus 

of  the      represents  as  Elus;  and  Sanchoniathon,  or  rather  Philo-Byblius,  un- 

daans      c*er  ^e  name  of  Elus,  or  Ilus.     The  meaning  of  the  word  El,  or  n, 

and  Baby-  is  simply  "  God,"  or  "  the  God."     Ra  had  the  same  meaning  in  Chal- 

daea,  but  in  Egypt  it  was  the  special  designation  of  the  Sun-god. 


CHALDEE-ASSYRO-BABYLONIAN    COSMOGONY    AND    RELIGION. 


293 


The  Semitic  name  of  Babylon  was  Bab-Il,  signifying  "  The  gate  of 
II,"  or  "  the  gate  of  God."  Ra  was  a  sort  of  fount  or  origin  of  deity 
and  had  few  attributes.  He  was  not  much  worshiped,  and  does  not 
appear  to  have  had  any  temple  in  early  times.  He  was  the  common 
father  of  Bel  and  Ana.  Though  Babylon,  from  its  name  Bdbil,  was 
originally  under  IPs  protection,  Bel  was  the  god  chiefly  worshiped  in 
that  city  in  early  times,  and  Merodach  in  later  times.  El,  or  II,  was 
the  lord  of  heaven.  He  was  styled  "  the  Warrior,"  "  the  Prince  of 
the  gods,"  "  the  Lord  of  the  universe."  In  an  Assyrian  tablet  he  is 
styled  "  the  Lamp  of  the  divinities."  In  his  anger  at  the  wickedness 
of  mankind  II  sent  the  great  Flood  to  destroy  the  human  race,  and 
Sisit  with  the  rest. 

The  residence  of  Ana,  the  first  god  of  the  first  triad,  was  in  the 
concave  dome  of  the  sky,  to  which  the  other  gods  fled  to  escape  the 
ravages  of  the  Flood,  which  the  wrath  of  II  had  sent  against  the 
wicked  world.  On  some  tablets  Ana  was  called  "  the  Old  Ana,"  "  the 
Original  Chief,"  "  the  Father  of  gods,"  "  the  Lord  of  spirits  and 
demons,"  "  the  King  of  the  lower  world,"  "  the  Lord  of  darkness," 
"the  Ruler  of  the  far-off  city,"  etc.  The  old  city  of  Erech,  or 
Huruk  (now  Warka),  was  the  chief  seat  of  Ana's  worship,  and  here 
was  a  favorite  burial-ground  of  the  Chaldees,  over  which  Ana  was 
believed  to  preside  as  a  tutelary  divinity.  He  was  worshiped  in  the 
most  remote  antiquity,  and  Urukh  alluded  to  him  as  one  of  the  gods 
of  Ur.  King  Shamas-Vul  built  a  temple  to  Ana  at  Asshur  (now 
Kileh-Sherghat),  about  1830  B.  C.  The  temple  of  Erech  bore  the 
name  of  Bit- Ana,  or  House  of  Ana;  and  the  goddess  Beltis,  whose 
worship  superseded  that  of  Ana,  in  this  temple,  was  the  companion 
of  Ana  and  was  called  "  the  Lady  of  Bit- Ana." 

Anat,  or  Anata,  the  wife  of  Ana,  was  but  a  reflection  of  her  hus- 
band, and  had  no  distinguishing  characteristics,  being  nothing  but 
the  feminine  form  of  the  masculine  Ana.  All  his  epithets  were  ap- 
plied to  her  with  only  a  distinction  of  gender,  and  she  had  no  per- 
sonality different  from  his,  and  is  rarely,  if  ever,  mentioned  in  the 
historical  or  geographical  inscriptions.  One  tablet  represents  Ana 
and  Anata  as  having  nine  children.  Two  of  Ana's  sons  were  Vul,  the 
Air-god,  and  Martu,  the  representative  of  "  Darkness,"  "  the  West," 
etc.,  corresponding  to  the  Erebus  of  the  Greeks. 

Bel,  also  called  Enu,  and  known  as  Belus  by  the  Greeks,  was  the 
second  of  the  first  triad  of  gods.  His  name  Bit  or  Bel  signifies 
"  Lord."  He  was  called  "  the  Supreme,"  "  the  Father  of  the  gods," 
"  the  Procreator,"  "  the  Lord,"  "  the  King  of  all  the  spirits,"  "  the 
Lord  of  the  world,"  "  the  Lord  of  all  the  countries."  When  Nimrod, 
"  the  mighty  hunter  before  the  Lord,"  the  legendary  founder  of  the 


Ana, 

Father  of 
Gods. 


Ana's 

Wife, 

Anat,  or 

Anata. 


Bel,  or 
Bil,  or 

Belus,  or 

Bel-Nim- 

rod,  or 

Bilu- 
Nipru. 


CHALD^A,   ASSYRIA,   BABYLONIA. 


Deifica- 
tion of 
Nimrod, 

the 

Chaldaean 
Founder. 


Bel's 

Wife, 

Beltis,  or 

Mulita,  or 

Mylitta. 


Chaldaean  Empire,  after  his  death  was  deified  as  Bel-Nimrod,  or  Bilu- 
Nipru,  "  the  Hunter  Lord,"  his  attributes  and  titles  were  mingled 
with  those  of  Bel.  Calneh,  or  Nipur,  the  modern  Niffer,  was  his 
sacred  city  and  the  seat  of  his  worship,  and  here  was  the  great  temple 
consecrated  to  him.  Many  legends  and  traditions  connect  his  name 
with  this  ancient  city,  which  was  also  dedicated  to  his  wife  Beltis. 
Bel-Nimrod  was  called  "  Lord  of  Nipra,"  and  his  wife  "  Lady  of 
Nipra."  His  temple  at  Nipur,  called  Kharris-Nipra,  and  famed  for 
its  wealth,  magnificence  and  antiquity,  was  an  object  of  intense  ven- 
eration to  the  Assyrian  monarchs.  Temples  were  likewise  dedicated 
to  his  worship  at  Calah  (now  Nimrud),  and  Dur-Kurri-galzu  (now 
Akkerkuf).  He  is  sometimes  said  to  have  had  four  "  arks  "  or  "  taber- 
nacles." Inscriptions  are  found  on  Assyrian  tablets,  in  which  his 
name  is  invoked  as  "  the  Lord  of  the  world."  This  fact  attests  that 
his  worship  was  general  throughout  Chaldsea  and  Assyria.  In  Assyria 
he  was  inferior  only  to  Asshur,  and  in  Chaldaea  only  to  El  and  Ana. 
Thus  Bel  and  Bel-Nimrod  were  virtually  the  same  god.  Beltis  was 
his  wife ;  and  Nin,  the  Assyrian  Hercules,  was  their  son,  and  was  fre- 
quently joined  in  their  invocations.  Sin,  the  Moon-god,  is  also  said 
to  be  Bel-Nimrod's  son,  in  some  inscriptions.  His  title  "  Father  of 
the  gods  "  would  indicate  an  almost  infinite  paternity.  Bel-Nimrod 
was  worshiped  during  the  whole  period  of  the  monarchy.  Urukh 
built  him  his  temple  at  Calneh,  or  Nipur  (now  Niffer),  and  Kurri- 
galzu  erected  the  one  at  Akkerkuf.  Urukh  often  mentions  him  in  the 
inscriptions  in  connection  with  Sin,  or  Hurki,  the  Moon-god,  whom 
he  calls  Bel-Nimrod's  "  eldest  son." 

Beltis,  or  Mulita — the  Mylitta  of  Herodotus — as  the  wife  of  Bel- 
Nimrod,  presented  a  strong  contrast  to  Anata,  the  wife  of  Ana.  Bel- 
tis was  not  only  a  female  power  of  Bel-Nimrod,  but  was  really  a  dis- 
tinct and  important  deity.  Her  common  title  was  "  the  Great  God- 
dess." Her  Chaldaean  name,  Mulita,  or  Enuta,  signifies  "  the  Lady." 
Her  Assyrian  name,  Bilta  or  Bilta-Nipruta,  were  the  feminine  forms 
of  Bil  and  Bilu-Nipru.  Her  favorite  title  was  "  the  Mother  of  the 
gods,"  or  "  Mother  of  the  great  gods,"  likewise  "  Queen-mother  of 
the  gods,"  "  the  Queen  of  the  land,"  "  the  Great  Lady,"  "  the  God- 
dess of  war  and  battle,"  "  the  Goddess  of  birth."  Though  usually 
classed  as  the  wife  of  Bel-Nimrod  and  the  mother  of  his  son  Nin,  she 
is  sometimes  called  "  the  wife  of  Nin,"  and  in  one  place  "  the  wife  of 
Asshur."  She  is  likewise  styled  "  the  lady  of  Bit- Ana,"  "  the  lady  of 
Nipur."  Her  worship  was  general,  and  her  temples  were  numerous. 
At  Erech  (now  Warka)  she  was  worshiped  on  the  same  platform  with 
Ana.  At  Calneh,  or  Nipur  (now  Niffer),  she  shared  fully  in  her 
husband's  honors.  She  had  a  shrine  at  Ur  (now  Mugheir),  another 


CHALDEE-ASSYRO-BABYLONIAN    COSMOGONY    AND    RELIGION.        395 

at  Rubesi,  and  another  outside  the  walls  of  Babylon.  Some  of  these 
temples  were  very  ancient,  those  at  Erech  and  Nipur  being  built  by 
Urukh,  while  that  at  Ur  was  either  built  or  repaired  by  Ismi-Dagon. 
One  record  makes  Beltis  the  daughter  of  Ana,  and  as  "  Queen  of 
Nipur  "  she  was  "  the  wife  of  Nin."  Beltis  was  "  the  Goddess  of 
fertility  and  birth,"  "  the  Lady  of  offspring."  The  worship  of  Beltis 
was  general  throughout  Chaldsea,  and  the  magnificence  of  her  temples 
prove  the  adoration  of  the  Chaldseans  and  the  Later  Babylonians  for 
her  as  the  source  of  beauty  and  the  dispenser  of  love. 

Hea,  or  Hoa,  the  third  of  the  first  triad  of  deities,  was  the  Sea-god,  Hea,  or 
who,  Berosus  says,  taught  language  and  letters,  art  and  science,  and  ujs  Wife 
agriculture  to  the  primitive  Chaldees.  Though  he  is  represented  as  a  Davkina. 
fish-monster,  Berosus  calls  him  "  the  Great  Giver  of  good  gifts  to 
man,"  and  he  also  bears  the  title  of  "  Lord  of  the  abyss,"  and  "  Lord 
of  the  great  deep."  He  was  adored  as  the  dispenser  of  life  and 
knowledge,  and  as  such  his  emblem  was  the  serpent,  which  Eastern 
races  generally  employed  as  the  symbol  of  more  than  human  wisdom. 
Rawlinson  considers  the  legend  of  Hea  in  the  form  of  a  serpent  teach- 
ing men  wisdom,  as  bearing  some  relation  to  the  story  of  the  serpent 
in  the  Garden  of  Eden,  enticing  Adam  and  Eve  to  eat  the  forbidden 
fruit  of  the  tree  of  knowledge  by  promising  them  extended  wisdom. 
The  connection  of  Hoa  with  the  introduction  of  letters  is  symbolized 
in  the  arrow-head  in  the  cuneiform  inscriptions.  The  Assyrian  kings 
built  him  temples  at  Asshur  and  Calah.  Davkina  was  the  wife  of  Hoa, 
and  her  name  signifies  "  the  Chief  Lady."  Like  Anata,  Davkina  had 
no  distinctive  titles  or  important  position  in  the  Pantheon,  but  took 
her  husband's  epithets  with  a  simple  distinction  of  gender.  Merodach 
and  Nebo  were  the  sons  of  Hoa  and  Davkina. 

Sin,  or  Hurki,  the  Moon-god,  was  the  first  deity  of  the  second  triad.      Sin,  or 
He  was  called  "  the  Powerful,"  "  the  Lord  of  the  spirits,"  "  He  who  the  Moon- 
dwells  in  the  great  heavens,"  "  the  Chief  of  the  gods  of  heaven  and    8°d>  a°d 
earth,"  "  the  King  of  the  gods,"  "  the  Bright,"  "  the  Shining,"  "  the     "the*  *' 
Lord  of  the  month."     As  the  patron  and  protector  of  buildings  and 
architecture,    he    was    styled    "  the    Supporting    Architect,"    "  the 
Strengthener  of  fortifications,"  "  the  Lord  of  building."     Bricks  were 
under  his  protection,  and  the  sign  of  the  month  under  his  special  care 
was  the  one  by  which  they  were  designated.     His  common  symbol  was 
the  crescent,  or  new  moon.     The  monuments  represent  him  in  the  form 
of  an  aged  bearded  figure  with  illustrations  of  the  different  phases  of 
the  crescent  near  his  head.     The  signet-cylinder  of  King  Urukh,  now 
in  the  British  Museum,  bears  this  representation  of  the  Moon-god. 
In  this  figure  he  is  represented  as  offering  one  hand  in  salutation  in 
the  presence  of  three  worshipers  standing  before  him.     The  Moon-god 


296  CHALD^A,   ASSYRIA,   BABYLONIA. 

was  the  special  object  of  kingly  worship.  Ur,  or  Hur,  which  derived 
its  name  from  Hurki,  was  his  sacred  city,  and  here  was  the  great 
temple  built  for  his  worship  by  King  Urukh  and  his  famous  son  and 
successor,  Hgi.  This  deity  was  likewise  worshiped  by  the  princes  of 
Borsippa  and  Babylon,  and  one  dynasty  of  Chaldaean  monarchs  bore 
the  title  of  the  Sin  kings.  The  Moon-god  was  adored  by  the  Chal- 
dasans  and  Babylonians  to  the  latest  days  of  antiquity,  through  the 
period  of  Assyrian  supremacy  to  the  times  of  Nebuchadnezzar  and 
Nabonadius,  the  last  of  whom  restored  his  shrine  at  Ur  and  bestowed 
on  him  high-sounding  titles,  such  as  "  the  Chief  of  the  gods  of  heaven 
and  earth,  the  King  of  the  gods,  God  of  gods,  He  who  dwells  in  the 
great  heavens."  In  some  inscriptions  the  Moon-god  is  called  the  eld- 
est son  of  Bel-Nimrod.  His  wife,  the  Moon-goddess,  called  "  the 
Great  Lady,"  was  often  associated  with  him  in  the  lists.  Hurki  and 
his  wife  were  the  tutelary  deities  of  Ur,  or  Hur,  and  a  part  of  the 
temple  was  dedicated  to  his  wife.  Her  "  ark  "  or  "  tabernacle,"  which 
was  separate  from  that  of  her  husband,  was  also  deposited  in  this 
sanctuary.  It  was  called  "  the  lesser  light,"  while  his  ark  was  styled 
"  the  light." 

San,  or  San,  or  Sansi,  the  Sun-god — whose  Semitic  names  were  Samas, 
Shamas1  Shamas,  and  Shemesh — was  the  second  deity  of  the  second  triad.  He 
the  Sun-  was  regarded  as  the  lord  of  the  daylight,  and  was  represented  as  light- 
godl  ing  the  universe.  His  emblem  was  the  circle.  He  was  called  "  the 
Lord  of  fire,"  "  the  Light  of  the  gods,"  «  the  Ruler  of  the  day,"  "  He 
who  illumines  the  expanse  of  heaven  and  earth,"  "  the  Regent  of  all 
things,"  "  the  Establisher  of  heaven  and  earth."  The  Sun-god  in- 
spired warlike  thoughts  in  the  minds  of  kings,  and  directed  and 
favored  their  military  expeditions.  He  caused  the  Chaldaean  mon- 
archs to  assemble  their  chariots  and  warriors,  and  went  forth  with  their 
armies  and  defeated  their  foes  in  battle.  He  extended  their  domin- 
ions, and  brought  them  back  to  their  own  land  as  conquerors.  He 
chased  their  enemies  before  them  and  crushed  all  opposition.  He 
aided  them  to  sway  the  kingly  sceptre  and  to  enforce  their  authority 
over  their  subjects.  He  was  thus  called  "  the  Supreme  Ruler  who 
casts  a  favorable  eye  on  expeditions,"  "  the  Vanquisher  of  the  king's 
enemies,"  "  the  Breaker-up  of  opposition."  As  the  sun  diffused  light 
and  warmth  throughout  the  realm  of  nature,  so  San  lightened  men's 
minds  and  hearts  with  wisdom  and  inspiration.  The  chief  seats  of 
the  Sun-god's  worship  were  at  Larsa  and  Sippara.  At  Larsa  was  the 
great  temple  to  San,  called  Bit-Parra,  built  by  Urukh,  and  restored 
at  times  to  as  late  a  period  as  the  age  of  Nebuchadnezzar.  At  Sip- 
para  the  worship  of  this  deity  took  precedence  of  all  others,  so  that 
the  Greeks  called  this  place  Heliopolis,  or  City  of  the  Sun.  The 


CHALDEE-ASSYRO-BABYLONIAN   COSMOGONY   AND   RELIGION. 


idolatry  of  the  "  Fire-king,"  Adrammelech,  which  the  Second  Book 
of  Kings  mentions  as  being  set  up  in  Samaria,  was  the  worship  of 
the  Chaldaean  Sun-god.  At  Sippara,  called  Tsipar  sha  Shamas, 
"  Sippara  of  the  Sun,"  in  the  inscriptions,  was  the  large  temple  to 
the  Sun-god  which  was  repaired  and  adorned  by  many  of  the  ancient 
Chaldaean  kings,  as  well  as  by  Nebuchadnezzar  and  Nabonadius. 
Most  of  the  signet-cylinders  of  the  Chaldasan  monarchs  have  the  em- 
blem of  the  sun  among  their  symbols  of  divinity. 

Ai,  Gula,  or  Anunit,  the  wife  of  San,  as  the  female  power  of  the 
sun,  was  usually  associated  with  the  Sun-god  in  temples  and  invoca- 
tions. Gula  signifies  "  great."  As  a  deity  separate  from  her  hus- 
band, she  presided  over  life  and  birth.  She  was  worshiped  with  her 
husband  both  at  Larsa  and  Sippara,  and  her  name  appears  on  the 
inscriptions  at  both  places.  She  is  believed  to  have  been  the  Anam- 
melech  whom  the  Sepharvites  adored  in  combination  with  Adram- 
melech, the  "  Fire-king."  In  later  times  she  had  temples  independent 
of  her  husband  at  Babylon  and  Borsippa,  as  well  as  at  Calah  and 
Asshur.  Her  emblem  was  the  eight-rayed  disk  or  orb,  which  is  often 
associated  with  the  four-rayed  orb  in  the  Babylonian  representations, 
or  sometimes  an  eight-rayed  star,  and  frequently  a  star  of  only  six 
rays. 

Vul,  or  Iva,  the  Air-god — also  variously  translated  as  Bin,  Yem, 
Ao  or  Hu — was  the  third  god  of  the  second  triad.  Like  the  Zeus  of 
the  Greeks  and  the  Jupiter  of  the  Romans,  Vul  wielded  the  thunder- 
bolt and  directed  the  storm  and  the  tempest.  The  Chaldaean  account 
of  the  great  Flood  represents  Vul  as  thundering  in  heaven.  He  was 
considered  the  destroyer  of  crops,  and  consequently  the  author  of 
famine,  scarcity  and  pestilence.  The  "  flaming  sword "  which  he  is 
said  to  have  held  in  his  hand  is  represented  as  his  symbol  on  the  tablets 
and  cylinders,  where  it  is  figured  as  a  thunderbolt.  He  was  regarded 
as  "  the  Prince  of  the  power  of  the  air."  His  usual  titles  were  "  the 
Minister  of  heaven  and  earth,"  "  the  Lord  of  the  air,"  "  He  who 
makes  the  tempest  to  rage."  He  was  the  great  destroyer  in  the  realm 
of  nature,  but  as  the  dispenser  of  rain  he  was  adored  as  the  source 
of  the  fertility  of  the  nourishing  earth.  He  was  regarded  as  the 
protector  of  rivers,  canals  and  aqueducts.  Thus  he  was  styled  "  the 
Careful  and  Beneficent  Chief,"  "  the  Giver  of  abundance,"  "  the  Lord 
of  canals,"  and  "  the  Establisher  of  works  of  irrigation."  The  name 
of  King  Shamus-Vul,  son  and  successor  of  Ismi-Dagon,  indicates  that 
Vul  must  have  been  worshiped  in  early  times,  as  that  king  set  up  his 
worship  at  Asshur  (now  Kileh-Sherghat),  in  Assyria,  where  a  temple 
was  built  to  him  and  Ana  conjointly.  All  through  the  period  of 
Assyrian  ascendency  and  to  the  end  of  the  Later  Babylonian  Empire 


San's 

Wife, 

Gula,  or 

Anunit. 


Vul,  or 
Iva,  the 

Air-god, 
and  His 

Wife, 
Shala,  or 

Tala. 


CHALD^A,   ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 

the  Air-god  was  highly  venerated.  Shala,  or  Tala,  was  the  wife  of 
Vul,  or  Iva,  and  her  usual  title  is  sarrat  or  sharrat,  meaning  "  queen," 
the  feminine  of  the  word  sar,  which  signifies  "  king,"  "  chief,"  or 
"  sovereign." 

Nin,  or  First  among  the  deities  who  represented  the  five  planets  then  known 
Barf'or  was  Nin,  or  Ninip,  also  called  Bar,  or  Adar,  who  was  the  representa- 
Adar,  the  tive  of  Saturn.  Bar,  the  Semitic  name,  and  Nin,  the  Hamitic  desig- 
Planet '  nation,  signify  "  Lord "  or  "  Master."  Ninip  signifies  "  Nin  by 
Saturn,  name,"  or  "  He  whose  name  is  Nin."  Barshen  signifies  "  Bar  by 
name,"  or  "  He  whose  name  is  Bar."  In  his  character  and  attributes 
Nin  most  nearly  corresponded  to  the  Hercules  of  the  Greeks,  as  he 
was  adored  as  the  god  of  strength  and  heroism,  according  to  the  tes- 
timony of  the  inscriptions.  He  boldly  faced  the  foe  in  battle,  and 
his  name  was  invoked  to  encourage  the  warrior  in  the  deadly  conflict. 
He  was  styled  "  the  Lord  of  the  brave,"  "  the  Champion,"  "  the  War- 
rior who  subdues  foes,"  "  He  who  strengthens  the  hearts  of  his  fol- 
lowers," "  the  Destroyer  of  enemies,"  "  the  Reducer  of  the  disobedi- 
ent," "  the  Exterminator  of  rebels,"  "  He  whose  sword  is  good."  In 
character  he  thus  very  much  resembled  Bel-Nimrod  and  Nergal,  and 
also  the  Greek  Ares,  the  Roman  Mars,  anr]  the  Scandinavian  Odin. 
The  inscriptions  call  Nin,  and  not  Hoa,  the  "  Fish-god."  His  em- 
blem was  generally  the  fish;  and  on  some  beliefs  he  is  represented  as 
part  man  and  part  fish,  and  beneath  arc  such  titles  as  "  the  God  of 
the  sea,"  "  He  who  dwells  in  the  deep,"  "  the  Opener  of  aqueducts." 
On  other  tablets  he  is  styled  "  the  Powerful  Chief,"  "  the  Supreme," 
"  the  First  of  the  gods,"  "  the  Favorite  of  the  gods,"  "  the  Chief  of 
the  spirits,"  and  like  titles.  In  his  planetary  character,  he  is  called 
*'  the  Light  of  heaven,"  "  He  who,  like  the  sun,  the  light  of  the  gods, 
irradiates  the  nations."  In  the  sculptured  courts  of  the  Assyrian  pal- 
aces, Nin  is  represented  as  a  winged  man-bull,  the  impersonation  of 
strength  and  power.  He  guards  the  palaces  of  the  Assyrian  kings, 
who  consider  him  their  tutelary  deity,  and  whose  capital  city,  Nineveh, 
is  named  in  his  honor.  Nin  does  not  rank  with  the  most  ancient  of 
the  Chaldaean  gods  on  the  monuments;  but  as  the  Fish-god,  whom 
Berosus  represented  as  coming  out  of  the  sea  to  teach  the  Chaldaeans 
letters  and  science,  he  must  have  been  an  object  of  veneration  from 
primeval  times.  His  oldest  temples  were  the  two  at  Calah  (now  Nim- 
rud),  and  his  temple  at  Nineveh  was  widely  famed  for  its  splendor, 
and  is  noticed  in  the  "  Annals  "  of  Tacitus.  His  worship  was  very 
general  throughout  Chaldaea  and  Assyria,  as  is  shown  by  the  fre- 
quency with  which  his  emblems  are  found  among  the  inscriptions.  As 
we  have  said,  Nin  was  the  son  of  Bel-Nimrod,  and  the  inscriptions 
represent  him  as  the  husband  and  son  of  Beltis.  One  tablet  calls  Nin 


CHALDEE-ASSYRO-BABYLONIAN    COSMOGONY    AND    RELIGION.       399 


the  father,  instead  of  the  son,  of  Bel-Nimrod.  This  contradiction 
is  the  result  of  the  double  character  of  Nin,  who,  as  Saturn,  was  the 
father,  but  as  Hercules,  the  son  of  Jupiter. 

Merodach,  or  Bel-Merodach,  represented  the  planet  of  Jupiter,  and 
was  called  "the  Old  Man  of  the  gods,"  "the  King  of  the  earth," 
"  the  Most  Ancient,"  "  Senior  of  the  gods,"  "  the  Judge,"  and  the  like. 
He  was  regarded  as  the  god  of  judgment,  justice  and  right.  He  was 
believed  to  preside  wherever  justice  was  dispensed  by  kings  sitting  in 
the  gates,  the  early  seats  of  justice.  He  was  considered  the  most 
spiritual  of  the  Chaldasan  deities,  and  in  the  Babylonian  inscriptions 
he  is  classed  as  superior  to  all  celestial  and  terrestrial  divinities,  under 
the  title  of  Belrabu.  The  Tel  Sifr  tablets  indicate  that  Merodach 
must  have  been  worshiped  in  the  early  Chaldasan  kingdom.  He  is 
believed  to  have  been  the  tutelary  deity  of  Babylon  from  the  most 
remote  antiquity,  and  as  the  city  grew  into  importance  his  worship 
became  more  and  more  prominent.  The  Assyrian  kings  always  asso- 
ciated Babylon  with  Merodach,  and  in  the  Later  Babylonian  Empire 
his  worship  took  precedence  of  that  of  the  other  gods.  Herodotus 
minutely  described  his  temple,  and  the  prophet  Daniel  bore  testimony 
to  the  devotion  with  which  he  was  worshiped  by  the  Babylonians. 
Nebuchadnezzar  called  him  "  the  King  of  the  heavens  and  the  earth," 
"  the  Great  Lord,"  "  the  Senior  of  the  gods,"  "  the  Most  Ancient," 
"  the  Supporter  of  sovereignty,"  "  the  Layer  up  of  treasures,"  and 
the  like;  and  attributed  to  this  god  all  his  glory  and  success.  His 
emblem  is  not  definitely  known ;  but  Diodorus  states  that  the  great 
statue  of  Merodach  at  Babylon  was  a  figure  "  standing  and  walking," 
and  such  a  form  frequently  appears  upon  the  Babylonian  cylinders. 
Merodach's  wife,  Zir-Banit,  had  a  temple  at  Babylon,  attached  to  her 
husband's,  and  is  believed  to  have  been  the  goddess  whose  worship 
was  introduced  into  Samaria  by  the  Babylonian  colonists,  and  who  is 
called  Succoth-benoth  in  the  Old  Testament. 

Nergal,  the  War-god,  was  the  representative  of  the  planet  Mars, 
and  his  name,  which  is  Hamitic,  signifies  "  the  Great  Man  "  or  "  the 
Great  Hero."  In  the  Assyrian  account  of  the  Deluge,  Nergal  is  al- 
luded to  as  the  destroyer;  but  he  was  chiefly  celebrated  for  his  power 
over  the  chase  and  the  battle-field,  thus  partaking  of  the  character 
and  attributes  of  Bel-Nimrod,  with  which  deity  he  is  compared  in  the 
adoration  bestowed  upon  him  as  the  ancestor  of  the  Assyrian  mon- 
archs.  He  was  called  "  the  King  of  battles,"  "  the  Champion  of  the 
gods,"  "the  Storm  ruler,"  "the  Strong  Begetter,"  "the  Tutelary 
God  of  Babylonia,"  and  "  the  God  of  the  chase."  He  is  usually 
coupled  with  Nin,  who  also  presides  over  battles  and  hunting.  The 

chief  seats  of  Nergal's  worship  were  the  ancient  cities  of  Cutha  and 

1—22 


Mero- 
dach. or 
Bel-Mero- 
dach, God 
of  Justice, 
Planet 
Jupiter. 


Nergal, 
the  War- 
god,  God 
of  Eunt- 

iag, 
Planet 
Mara. 


300  CHALD^A,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 

Tarbissa.  Cutha  was  the  sacred  city  where  he  was  said  to  "  live," 
and  in  which  was  his  famous  shrine.  The  "  men  of  Cuth,"  when 
transported  as  colonists  to  Samaria  by  the  Assyrians,  naturally  "  made 
Nergal  their  god,"  introducing  his  worship  into  the  land  of  their 
forced  adoption.  Nergal's  emblem  was  the  famous  winged  man-lion, 
the  impersonation  of  human  intelligence  and  physical  strength,  as 
seen  at  the  entrances  of  the  great  palaces  of  Susa  and  Nineveh.  Of 
Nergal's  wife,  called  Lax,  only  her  name  is  known. 

Ishtar,  or        Ishtar,  or  Nana,  was  the  representative  of  the  planetary  Venus, 
Q^"      and  in   character  and  attributes  she  mainly   corresponded  with  the 

of  Spring,  classical  goddess  whose  name  the  planet  bears.  Ishtar  was  her  As- 
Venus*  syrian  name,  and  Nana  was  her  Babylonian  appellation.  The  Phoe- 
nicians called  her  Astarte,  and  the  Hebrews  Astoreth.  Ishtar  is  styled 
in  the  inscriptions  "  the  Goddess  who  rejoices  mankind,"  and  her  most 
common  epithet  is  Asurah,  "  the  Fortunate,"  or  "  the  Happy."  She 
is  also  called  "  the  Mistress  of  heaven  and  earth,"  "  the  Great  God- 
dess," "  the  Queen  of  all  the  gods  " ;  and  also  "  the  Goddess  of  war 
and  battle,"  "  the  Queen  of  victory,"  "  She  who  arranges  battles," 
and  "  She  who  defends  from  attacks."  In  the  inscriptions  of  one 
monarch  she  is  represented  as  "  the  Goddess  of  the  chase."  Her 
worship  was  general,  and  her  shrines  were  numerous.  She  is  often 
styled  "  the  Queen  of  Babylon,"  and  must  have  had  a  temple  in  that 
city.  She  likewise  had  temples  at  Asshur,  Arbela  and  Nineveh.  Her 
symbol,  as  represented  on  the  cylinders,  is  the  naked  female  form. 

Account         Ishtar,  in  her  journey  to  the  under-world,  symbolized  the  disap- 

DescenTto  Pearance  in  winter  of  the  Life  in  nature  as  ushered  in  at  spring. 
Hades.      Ishtar  is  represented  as  going  down  to  the  House  of  Iskalla.     Mr. 
Fox  Talbot,  the  English  Orientalist,  gives  the  following  translation 
of  the  descent  of  Ishtar  to  Hades,  or  the  House  of  Iskalla: 

"  To  the  land  of  Hades,  the  land  of  her  desire,  Ishtar,  daughter 
of  the  Moon-god  Sin,  turned  her  mind.  The  daughter  of  Sin  fixed 
her  mind  to  go  to  the  House  where  all  meet,  the  dwelling  of  the  god 
Iskalla,  to  the  house  which  men  enter,  but  cannot  depart  from — the 
road  which  men  travel,  but  never  retrace — the  abode  of  darkness  and 
of  famine,  where  earth  is  their  food,  their  nourishment  clay — where 
light  is  not  seen,  but  in  darkness  they  dwell — where  ghosts,  like  birds, 
flutter  their  wings,  and  on  the  door  and  the  door-posts  the  dust  lies 
undisturbed. 

"  When  Ishtar  arrived  at  the  gate  of  Hades,  to  the  keeper  of  the 
gate  a  word  she  spake :  *  O  keeper  of  the  entrance,  open  thy  gate ! 
Open  thy  gate,  I  say  again,  that  I  may  enter  in!  If  thou  openest 
not  thy  gate,  if  I  do  not  enter  in,  I  will  assault  the  door,  the  gate  I 
will  break  down,  I  will  attack  the  entrance,  I  will  split  open  the  por- 


CHALDEE-ASSYRO-BABYLONIAN    COSMOGONY    AND    RELIGION. 

tals.  I  will  raise  the  dead,  to  be  the  devourers  of  the  living!  Upon 
the  living  the  dead  shall  prey.'  Then  the  porter  opened  his  mouth 
and  spake,  and  thus  he  said  to  great  Ishtar:  '  Stay,  lady,  do  not 
shake  down  the  door;  I  will  go  and  inform  Queen  Nin-ki-gal.'  So 
the  porter  went  in  and  to  Nin-ki-gal  said :  '  These  curses  thy  sister 
Ishtar  utters ;  yea,  she  blasphemes  thee  with  fearul  curses.'  And 
Nin-ki-gal,  hearing  the  words,  grew  pale,  like  a  flower  when  cut  from 
the  stem ;  like  the  stalk  of  a  reed,  she  shook.  And  she  said,  '  I  will 
cure  her  rage — I  will  speedily  cure  her  fury.  Her  curses  I  will  repay. 
Light  up  consuming  flames !  Light  up  a  blaze  of  straw !  Be  her 
doom  with  the  husbands  who  left  their  wives;  be  her  doom  with  the 
wives  who  forsook  their  lords ;  be  her  doom  with  the  youths  of  dis- 
honored lives.  Go,  porter,  and  open  the  gate  for  her;  but  strip  her, 
as  some  have  been  stripped  ere  now.'  The  porter  went  and  opened 
the  gate.  '  Lady  of  Tiggaba,  enter,'  he  said :  '  Enter.  It  is  per- 
mitted. The  Queen  of  Hades  to  meet  thee  comes.'  So  the  first  gate 
let  her  in,  but  she  was  stopped,  and  there  the  great  crown  was  taken 
from  her  head.  '  Keeper,  do  not  take  off  from  me  the  crown  that  is 
on  my  head.'  *  Excuse  it,  lady,  the  Queen  of  the  Land  insists  upon 
its  removal.'  The  next  gate  let  her  in,  but  she  was  stopped,  and  there 
the  ear-rings  were  taken  from  her  ears.  *  Keeper,  do  not  take  off 
from  me  the  ear-rings  from  my  ears.'  *  Excuse  it,  lady,  the  Queen 
of  the  Land  insists  upon  their  removal.'  The  third  gate  let  her  in, 
but  she  was  stopped,  and  there  the  precious  stones  were  taken  from 
her  head.  '  Keeper,  do  not  take  off  from  me  the  gems  that  adorn  my 
head.'  '  Excuse  it,  lady,  the  Queen  of  the  Land  insists  upon  their 
removal.'  The  fourth  gate  let  her  in,  but  she  was  stopped,  and  there 
the  small  jewels  were  taken  from  her  brow.  *  Keeper,  do  not  take  off 
from  me  the  small  jewels  that  deck  my  brow.'  '  Excuse  it,  lady,  the 
Queen  of  the  Land  insists  upon  their  removal.'  The  fifth  gate  let 
her  in,  but  she  was  stopped,  and  there  the  girdle  was  taken  from  her 
waist.  *  Keeper,  do  not  take  off  from  me  the  girdle  that  girds  my 
waist.'  '  Excuse  it,  lady,  the  Queen  of  the  Land  insists  upon  its 
removal.'  The  sixth  gate  let  her  in,  but  she  was  stopped,  and  there 
the  gold  rings  were  taken  from  her  hands  and  feet.  *  Keeper,  do  not 
take  off  from  me  the  gold  rings  of  my  hands  and  feet.'  '  Excuse  it, 
lady,  the  Queen  of  the  Land  insists  upon  their  removal.'  The  seventh 
gate  let  her  in,  but  she  was  stopped,  and  there  the  last  garment  was 
taken  from  her  body.  '  Keeper,  do  not  take  off,  I  pray,  the  last 
garment  from  my  body.'  *  Excuse  it,  lady,  the  Queen  of  the  Land 
insists  upon  its  removal.' 

"  After  that  Mother  Ishtar  had  descended  into  Hades,  Nin-ki-sral 

*  O. 

saw  and  derided  her  to  her  face.     Then  Ishtar  lost  her  reason,  and 


30cj  CHALD^A,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 

heaped  curses  upon  the  other.  Nin-ki-gal  hereupon  opened  her 
mouth,  and  spake :  '  Go,  Namtar,  *  *  *  and  bring  her  out  for  pun- 
ishment, *  *  *  afflict  her  with  disease  of  the  eye,  the  side,  the  feet, 
the  heart,  the  head'  (some  lines  effaced).  *  *  * 

"  The  Divine  messenger  of  the  gods  lacerated  his  face  before  them. 
The  assembly  of  the  gods  was  full.  *  *  *  The  Sun  came,  along  with 
the  Moon,  his  father,  and  weeping  he  spake  thus  unto  Hea,  the  king: 
'  Ishtar  has  descended  into  the  earth,  and  has  not  risen  again ;  and 
ever  since  the  time  that  Mother  Ishtar  descended  into  hell,  *  *  *  the 
master  has  ceased  from  commanding;  the  slave  has  ceased  from  obey- 
ing.' Then  the  god  Hea  in  the  depth  of  his  mind  formed  a  design; 
he  modeled,  for  her  escape,  the  figure  of  a  man  of  clay.  Go  to  save 
her,  Phantom,  present  thyself  at  the  portal  of  Hades ;  the  seven  gates 
of  Hades  will  all  open  before  thee;  Nin-ki-gal  will  see  thee,  and  take 
pleasure  because  of  thee.  When  her  mind  has  grown  calm,  and  her 
anger  has  worn  itself  away,  awe  her  with  the  names  of  the  great  gods ! 
Then  prepare  thy  frauds !  Fix  on  deceitful  tricks  thy  mind !  Use 
the  chief est  of  thy  tricks!  Bring  forth  fish  out  of  an  empty  vessel! 
That  will  astonish  Nin-ki-gal,  and  to  Ishtar  she  will  restore  her  cloth- 
ing. The  reward — a  great  reward — for  these  things  shall  not  fail. 
Go,  Phantom,  save  her,  and  the  great  assembly  of  the  people  shall 
crown  thee!  Meats,  the  best  in  the  city,  shall  be  thy  food!  Wine, 
the  most  delicious  in  the  city,  shall  be  thy  drink!  A  royal  palace 
shall  be  thy  dwelling,  a  throne  of  state  shall  be  thy  seat!  Magician 
and  conjuror  shall  kiss  the  hem  of  thy  garment!' 

"  Nin-ki-gal  opened  her  mouth  and  spake ;  to  her  messenger,  Nam- 
tar,  commands  she  gave :  '  Go,  Namtar,  the  Temple  of  Justice  adorn ! 
Deck  the  images !  Deck  the  altars !  Bring  out  Anunnak,  and  let 
him  take  his  seat  on  a  throne  of  gold!  Pour  out  for  Ishtar  the  water 
of  life ;  from  my  realms  let  her  depart.'  Namtar  obeyed ;  he  adorned 
the  Temple ;  decked  the  images,  decked  the  altars ;  brought  out  Anun- 
nak, and  let  him  take  his  seat  on  a  throne  of  gold;  poured  out  for 
Ishtar  the  water  of  life,  and  suffered  her  to  depart.  Then  the  first 
gate  let  her  out,  and  gave  her  back  the  garment  of  her  form.  The 
next  gate  let  her  out,  and  gave  her  back  the  jewels  for  her  hands  and 
feet.  The  third  gate  let  her  out,  and  gave  her  back  the  girdle  for 
her  waist.  The  fourth  gate  let  her  out,  and  gave  her  back  the  small 
gems  she  had  worn  upon  her  brow.  The  fifth  gate  let  her  out,  and 
gave  her  back  the  precious  stones  that  had  been  upon  her  head.  The 
sixth  gate  let  her  out,  and  gave  her  back  the  ear-rings  that  were  taken 
from  her  ears.  And  the  seventh  gate  let  her  out,  and  gave  her  back 
the  crown  she  had  carried  on  her  head." 

Ishtar's  return  to  earth  symbolized  the  reappearance  of  spring. 


CHALDEE-ASSYRO-BABYLONIAN    COSMOGONY    AND    RELIGION. 


The  god  Nebo  represented  the  planet  Mercury,  and  was  the  last  of 
the  five  planetary  deities.  Nebo  was  the  god  of  wisdom  and  intelli- 
gence, the  patron  and  protector  of  knowledge  and  learning,  and  the 
teacher  of  mankind.  His  attributes  were  the  same  as  those  of  the 
Greek  Hermes.  He  was  styled  "  the  God  who  possesses  intelligence,'* 
"  He  who  hears  from  afar,"  "  He  who  teaches,"  or  "  He  who  teaches 
and  instructs."  He  thus  somewhat  resembled  Hoa,  whose  son  he  is 
called  in  some  inscriptions.  Like  Hoa,  he  had  for  his  emblem  the 
simple  wedge  or  arrow-head,  the  primary  element  in  the  cuneiform 
writing,  to  signify  his  association  with  that  god  in  the  patronage  of 
letters.  Nebo's  other  titles  were  "  the  Lord  of  lords,  who  has  no  equal 
in  power,"  "  the  Supreme  Chief,"  "  the  Sustainer,"  "  the  Supporter," 
"  the  Ever-ready,"  "  the  Guardian  over  the  heavens  and  the  earth," 
"  the  Lord  of  the  constellations,"  "  the  Holder  of  the  sceptre  of 
power,"  "  He  who  grants  to  kings  the  sceptre  of  royalty  for  the  gov- 
ernment of  their  people."  Sometimes  he  is  classed  with  the  inferior 
deities.  His  worship  was  more  general  in  Chaldaea  than  in  Assyria. 
In  the  later  ages  Borsippa  was  the  chief  seat  of  Nebo's  worship,  and 
there  the  great  temple,  called  Birs-i-Nimrud,  was  consecrated  to  him. 
The  ruins  of  one  of  his  shrines  are  found  on  the  site  of  the  ancient 
Assyrian  city  of  Calah  (now  Nimrud),  whence  imposing  statues  of. 
this  god  have  been  transferred  to  the  British  Museum.  He  was  a 
favorite  deity  of  the  later  Babylonian  kings,  many  of  whom  were 
named  after  him,  such  as  Nabonassar,  Nabopolassar,  Nebuchadnezzar 
and  Nobanadius.  Nebo's  wife  was  Varamit,  or  Urmit,  a  name  sig- 
nifying "  exalted,"  who  was  only  a  companion  of  her  husband  and 
had  no  special  attributes.  Besides  the  deities  described,  the  Chaldsean 
Pantheon  embraced  a  multitude  of  inferior  divinities,  of  whom  but 
very  little  is  known. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  the  Chaldaean  religion  was,  from  the  most  re- 
mote antiquity,  an  astronomical  worship.  The  twelve  constellations 
of  the  Zodiac  were  the  sun's  "  twelve  houses,"  and  his  proper  abode 
was  in  the  constellation  of  Leo.  The  planets  likewise  traversed  twelve 
stages  in  their  course,  and  each  sign  or  "  house  "  passed  by  any  one 
of  these  celestial  bodies  was  regarded  as  a  seat  of  divine  power,  white 
the  planets  themselves  were  considered  gods.  Thirty  of  the  fixed  stars 
were  associated  with  the  planets  as  "  counseling  gods  " ;  and  twelve 
others  in  the  northern  heavens,  and  twelve  in  the  southern  firmament, 
were  designated  "  the  judges."  The  twelve  "  judges  "  above  the  hori- 
zon controlled  the  destinies  of  the  living,  while  the  twelve  below  were 
masters  of  the  fate  of  the  dead.  Each  of  the  twelve  months  of  the 
year  was  assigned  to  one  of  the  twelve  great  gods,  beginning  with 
Ana.  The  seven  days  of  the  week  were  controlled  by  the  seven  great 


Nebo,  God 
of  Wis- 
dom, 
Planet 

Mercury. 


, 

Astro- 
nomical 

Worship. 


30-1- 


CHAIJXEA,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Cbaldaean 
Astrol- 
ogy- 


Assyrian 
and 

Chaldasan 
Religion 
Almost 

Identical. 


Asshur, 

the  Chief 

Assyrian 

God. 


heavenly  bodies — the  sun,  the  moon,  and  the  five  planets  then  known. 
The  hours  were  assigned  to  certain  stars. 

Thus  in  the  earliest  twilight  of  Oriental  history,  more  than  four 
thousand  years  ago,  the  Wise  Men  of  ancient  Chaldaea — priests,  bards, 
sages  and  prophets — by  their  observations  of  the  heavens  and  their 
explorations  of  the  paths  of  the  celestial  luminaries,  became  the  great 
pioneers  of  astronomical  science,  and  the  founders  of  that  semi- 
mythical  and  semi-scientific  learning  which  became  diffused  through- 
out the  whole  West  of  Asia.  The  priests  performed  the  task  of 
watching  the  courses,  positions  and  phases  of  the  celestial  orbs  and 
luminaries,  and  estimating  and  calculating  the  influence  of  this  ever- 
varying  aspect  upon  the  destinies  of  men  and  nations.  The  seer  and 
the  prophet  endeavored  to  show  how  the  ^ood  and  evil  fortune  of  the 
state  was  blended  with  conjunctions  and  oppositions  in  the  starry 
firmament.  Thus  astrology  became  mingled  with  astronomy.  In  the 
Book  of  Daniel  the  Chaldaeans  are  mentioned  as  interpreters  of  stars 
and  signs.  The  following  inscription  has  been  deciphered  from  a 
tablet  found  at  Nineveh :  "  If  Jupiter  is  seen  in  the  month  of  Tam- 
muz,  there  will  be  corpses.  If  Venus  comes  opposite  the  star  of  the 
fish,  there  will  be  devastation.  If  the  star  of  the  great  lion  is  gloomy, 
the  heart  of  the  people  will  not  rejoice.  If  the  moon  is  seen  on  the 
first  day  of  the  month,  Accad  will  prosper."  From  that  ancient  period 
to  the  present  there  has  prevailed  among  the  superstitious,  in  all  ages 
and  nations,  a  belief  that  stars  and  astrological  signs  bear  some  rela- 
tion to  the  fate  of  men  and  nations. 

The  Assyrian  religion  was  almost  identical  with  the  Chaldasan,  the 
only  essential  point  of  difference  being  that  the  supreme  national  deity 
of  Assyria,  Asshur,  "  the  Great  Lord,"  was  unknown  in  Chaldsea, 
where  II  was  the  chief  god.  With  this  solitary  exception,  the  gods  of 
Chaldasa  were  also  the  gods  of  Assyria.  The  minor  points  of  difference 
were  that  certain  deities  prominent  in  the  Chaldaean  pantheon  occupied 
a  subordinate  position  in  the  pantheon  of  Assyria,  and  vice  versa. 
Each  pantheon  began  with  the  preeminence  of  a  single  god  followed 
by  the  same  groupings  of  identically  the  same  divinities,  and,  after 
that,  by  a  multitude  of  local  deities.  Each  country  had  almost  the 
same  worship — temples,  altars  and  ceremonies  of  a  similar  character — 
the  same  religious  emblems — the  same  religious  ideas.  But  Assyria 
furnishes  us  with  a  clearer  knowledge  of  the  material  aspects  of  the 
religious  system  so  nearly  common  to  the  two  nations. 

Asshur,  the  head  of  the  Assyrian  pantheon,  is  usually  called  "  the 
Great  Lord,"  "  the  King  of  all  the  Gods,"  "  He  who  rules  supreme 
over  the  Gods."  He  is  also  called  "  the  Father  of  the  Gods,"  though 
that  title  is  more  properly  assigned  to  Bel.  Asshur  always  has  the 


CHALDEE-ASSYRO-BABYLONIAN   COSMOGONY   AND   RELIGION. 


first  place  in  invocations.  The  testimony  of  the  Assyrian  inscriptions 
shows  that  Asshur  was  considered  the  special  tutelary  deity  of  the 
Assyrian  monarchs  and  of  the  nation.  He  put  kings  on  the  throne, 
firmly  established  them  in  authority,  prolonged  their  reigns,  main- 
tained their  power,  protected  their  fortresses  and  armies,  made  their 
names  famous,  and  the  like.  They  turned  to  him  for  victory  in  war, 
to  give  them  all  they  desire,  and  to  permit  their  thrones  to  be  occu- 
pied by  their  dynasty  to  the  latest  posterity.  They  usually  spoke  of 
him  as  "  Asshur,  my  Lord."  They  represented  themselves  as  devot- 
ing their  lives  to  his  service.  They  prosecuted  their  wars  to  extend 
his  worship.  In  his  name  they  fought  their  battles  and  carried  ruin 
and  destruction  among  their  enemies.  When  they  conquered  a  coun- 
try they  "  set  up  the  emblems  of  Asshur,"  and  spread  a  knowledge 
of  his  laws  and  his  worship. 

The  tutelage  of  Asshur  over  Assyria  is  significantly  indicated  by 
the  identity  of  his  name  with  that  of  their  country.  The  god  Asshur, 
the  country  Asshur,  and  the  city  Asshur,  and  "  an  Assyrian  "  are  all 
represented  by  the  same  term,  which  is  written  both  Ashur  and  Asshur. 
This  tutelage  is  likewise  shown  by  the  circumstance  that  Asshur  had 
no  famous  temple  or  shrine  in  any  particular  Assyrian  city  like  the 
other  deities,  and  that  his  worship  was  general  throughout  Assyria. 
The  early  Assyrian  capital  was  named  after  this  supreme  national 
deity ;  and  all  the  local  temples  and  shrines  in  the  land  were  open  to 
his  worship,  in  addition  to  that  of  the  divinities  to  whom  they  were 
dedicated.  The  inscriptions  continually  describe  the  Assyrians  as 
"  the  servants  of  Asshur,"  and  allude  to  their  foes  as  "  the  enemies 
of  Asshur."  No  phrases  of  a  like  character  have  been  employed  in 
referring  to  any  other  deity  of  the  Assyrian  pantheon.  It  is  certain 
that  the  ancestor  and  founder  of  the  Assyrian  nation,  Asshur,  the  son 
of  Shem,  had  been  deified  after  his  death,  as  Nimrod  had  been;  and 
that  he  was  thenceforth  "  the  Great  Lord  "  of  the  Assyrians — the 
supreme  ruler  over  heaven  and  earth — the  chief  object  of  Assyrian 
adoration. 

The  favorite  emblem  of  Asshur  was  the  winged  circle  or  globe,  from 
which  is  frequently  seen  issuing  a  figure  in  a  horned  cap,  sometimes 
holding  a  bow  only,  sometimes  discharging  arrows  from  a  bow  against 
the  enemies  of  Assyria.  It  has  been  conjectured  that  the  circle  sym- 
bolizes eternity,  that  the  wings  signify  omnipotence,  and  that  the 
human  figure  typifies  wisdom  or  intelligence.  There  are  numerous 
varieties  of  this  emblem.  Sometimes  the  human  figure  has  no  bow, 
and  only  extends  the  right  hand.  Sometimes  both  hands  are  extended, 
and  a  ring  or  chaplet  is  held  in  the  left.  In  one  instance  there  is  no 
full  human  figure,  but  a  pair  of  hands  are  seen  issuing  from  behind 
VOL.  l. — 20 


The  God 

Asshur, 

the  City 

Asshur 

and  the 

Assyrian 

Anceotor 

Asshur. 


Deifica- 
tion of 
Asshur. 
Son  of 
Shem. 

Asshur's 
Emblem. 


306 


CHALD^EA,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Sculp- 
tured 
Represen- 
tation of 
Asshur's 
Symbol. 


Sacred 
Tree. 


Other 

Assyrian 

Deities. 


the  winged  disk,  the  right  hand  showing  the  palm,  and  the  left  hold- 
ing a  bow.  In  many  cases  the  winged  circle  appears  alone,  with  the 
disk  either  plain  or  ornamented.  Sennacherib's  signet-cylinder  bears 
an  emblem  of  Asshur  having  three  human  heads,  that  on  the  entire 
human  figure,  and  one  on  each  side  of  it,  resting  on  the  feathers  of 
the  wing. 

The  sculptures  represent  the  winged  circle  in  close  connection  with 
the  king,  who  has  it  embroidered  upon  his  robes,  engraved  upon  his 
cylinder,  represented  over  his  head  in  the  rock  tablets  on  which  his 
image  is  carved ;  and  who  stands  or  kneels  in  adoration  before  it,  fights 
under  its  shadow,  returns  in  triumph  under  its  protection,  and  assigns 
it  a  prominent  place  in  the  scenes  in  which  he  himself  is  represented 
on  his  obelisks.  It  is  when  the  king  is  engaged  in  battle  that  Asshur 
is  represented  as  drawing  the  bow  and  aiming  the  arrow  towards  the 
king's  enemies.  It  is  when  he  is  returning  in  triumph  from  the  field 
of  conquest  that  Asshur  is  represented  as  only  carrying  the  bow  in 
his  left  hand,  and  holding  out  his  right.  In  peaceful  scenes  Asshur 
is  represented  without  a  bow.  In  representations  of  the  king  at  wor- 
ship Asshur  extends  his  hand  in  aid.  Where  the  monarch  is  repre- 
sented as  engaged  in  secular  matters  Asshur's  presence  is  indicated 
by  the  winged  circle  without  the  human  figure. 

The  sacred  tree  is  an  emblem  frequently  seen,  under  various  forms, 
in  connection  with  the  symbol  of  Asshur.  The  simplest  form  consists 
of  a  short  pillar  springing  from  a  solitary  pair  of  ram's  horns,  upon 
which  is  mounted  a  capital  consisting  of  two  pairs  of  rams'  horns, 
with  one,  two  or  three  horizontal  bands  between  them ;  while  above  this 
capital  is  a  scroll  like  that  usually  surmounting  the  winged  circle,  and 
above  the  scroll  is  a  flower  like  the  Greek  "  honeysuckle  ornaments." 
In  some  cases  the  pillar  is  elongated,  with  a  capital  in  the  middle  as 
well  as  one  at  the  top ;  the  blossom  above  the  upper  capital,  and  usu- 
ally the  stem  also,  throwing  out  many  smaller  blossoms  of  the  same 
kind,  or  fir-cones,  or  pomegranates.  Sometimes  there  is  likewise  an 
intricate  network  of  branches  forming  an  arch  surrounding  the  tree. 
This  Assyrian  sacred  tree  has  been  compared  with  the  Scriptural  "  tree 
of  life." 

In  early  times  the  Assyrians  ranked  Anu  and  Vul  next  to  Asshur; 
but  later  they  accorded  this  honor  to  Bel,  Sin,  Shamas,  Vul,  Nin  and 
Nergal.  Gula,  Ishtar  and  Beltis  were  favorite  goddesses.  Hoa,  Nebo 
and  Merodach  were  less  worshiped  in  Assyria  than  in  Chaldsea,  or 
Babylonia,  though  they  were  more  esteemed  in  the  later  period  of 
Assyrian  history.  As  the  characteristics  of  these  deities  have  been 
described  in  our  account  of  the  religion  of  Chaldaea,  we  will  here  sim- 
ply refer  to  their  worship  in  Assyria  and  the  temples  dedicated  to  them. 


CHALDEE-ASSYRO-BABYLONIAN    COSMOGONY    AND    RELIGION.       $07 

The  worship  of  Ami  was  introduced  into  Assyria  from  Babylonia  Ami.  or 
during  the  period  of  Chaldaean  supremacy  before  Assyria  had  become  ^^y'^ 
an  independent  kingdom.  Shamas-Vul,  the  son  of  Ismi-Dagon,  King 
of  Chaldsea,  erected  a  temple  to  Anu  and  Vul  at  Asshur,  the  early 
Assyrian  capital,  about  B.  C.  1820.  The  Inscription  of  Tiglath- 
Pileser  I.  says  that  this  temple  lasted  six  hundred  and  twenty-one 
years,  when,  on  account  of  its  decayed  condition,  it  was  torn  down 
by  Asshur-dayan  I.,  the  great-grandfather  of  Tiglath-Pileser  I.  Its 
site  remained  vacant  for  sixty  years,  after  which  Tiglath-Pileser  I. 
rebuilt  the  temple  more  splendidly  than  before,  and  thenceforth  it  was 
one  of  the  principal  shrines  of  Assyria.  A  tradition  relating  to  this 
ancient  temple  was  the  source  from  which  the  site  of  the  city  of 
Asshur  in  later  times  derived  the  name  of  Telane,  or  "  the  Mound  of 
Asshur."  Anu's  name  is  no  element  in  the  names  of  monarchs  or  of 
other  prominent  characters,  and  is  not  found  in  many  solemn  invoca- 
tions ;  but  where  his  name  occurs  it  is  always  placed  next  to  that  of 
Asshur,  and  Tiglath-Pileser  I.  mentions  him  in  his  great  Inscription, 
as  his  lord  and  protector,  in  the  place  next  to  Asshur.  Asshur-izir- 
pal  calls  himself  "  him  who  honors  Anu,"  or  "  him  who  honors  Anu 
and  Dagon."  Asshur-izir-pal's  son  and  successor,  Shalmaneser  II., 
gives  Anu  the  second  place  in  the  invocation  of  thirteen  gods  with 
which  he  begins  his  record.  The  monarchs  of  the  New  or  Lower 
Assyrian  Empire  did  not  usually  esteem  Anu  very  highly,  with  the 
exception  of  Sargon,  who  glorified  him,  coupled  him  with  Asshur,  and 
made  him  the  tutelary  god  of  one  of  the  gates  of  his  new  city,  Dur- 
Sargina  (now  Khorsabad),  uniting  him  in  this  capacity  with  the 
goddess  Ishtar.  Anu  did  not  have  many  temples  in  Assyria,  having 
none  at  Nineveh  or  Calah,  the  only  important  one  being  at  Asshur. 

Bel,  or  Bel-Nimrod,  according  to  the  testimony  of  the  Assyrian      Bel,  or 
monuments,  was  worshiped  as  extensively  in  Assyria  as  in  Chaldaea,    ^^i™ 
or  Babylonia.     From  the  time  of  Tiglath-Pileser  I.  to  the  fall  of  the    Assyria. 
Assyrian  Empire,  the  Assyrians,  as  a  nation,  were  specifically  denom- 
inated "  the  people  of  Bel  " ;  and  a  certain  part  of  Nineveh  was  desig- 
nated "  the  city  of  Bel."     The  word  Bel  was  an  element  in  the  names 
of  three  Assyrian  kings.     In  the  invocation  of  the  gods  Bel's  place 
is  next  to  Asshur*s  when  Anu's  name  is  omitted ;  but  when  Anu  occupies 
his  proper  place  next  to  Asshur,  Bel  ranks  third.     In  several  places, 
however,  where  Anu  is  omitted,  Shamas  is  second  and  Bel  third.     Bel 
was  worshiped  in  early  Assyrian  times,  as  indicated  by  the  royal  names 
of  Bel-sumili-kapi  and  Bel-lush,  as  borne  by  two  of  the  earliest  Assyr- 
ian monarchs.     Bel  had  a  temple  at  Asshur  in  connection  with  II,  and 
its  antiquity  is  proven  by  the  fact  that  as  early  as  the  time  of  Tiglath- 
Pileser  I.,  B.  C,  1130,  it  had  fallen  into  decay  and  was  rebuilt  by  that 


308 


CHALD^EA,   ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Eoain 
Assyria. 


famous  king.  Bel  had  also  a  temple  at  Calah,  and  four  "  arks  "  or 
"  tabernacles,"  whose  sites  are  not  identified.  Sargon  accorded  high 
honor  to  Bel,  coupling  him  with  Ami  in  his  royal  titles,  and  dedi- 
cating to  him,  in  conjunction  with  his  wife,  Beltis,  one  of  the  gates 
of  his  city.  In  this  dedication  Bel  is  called  "  the  establisher  of  the 
foundations  of  his  city  " ;  and  in  many  passages  Sargon  attributes 
his  royal  authority  to  the  favor  of  Bel  and  Merodach.  Probably  the 
horned  cap,  the  general  emblem  of  divinity,  was  the  special  symbol 
of  Bel.  Esar-haddon  says  that  he  set  up  over  "  the  image  of  his 
majesty  the  emblems  of  Asshur,  the  Sun,  Bel,  Nin  and  Ishtar."  The 
other  kings  invariably  mention  Bel  as  one  of  the  chief  objects  of 
their  worship. 

Hoa  was  not  prominently  worshiped  in  Assyria.  Asshur-izir-pal 
says  that  Hoa  alotted  the  senses  of  hearing,  seeing  and  understanding 
to  the  four  thousand  deities  of  heaven  and  earth ;  and  then,  mentioning 
that  the  four  thousand  deities  had  transferred  these  senses  to  himself, 
he  assumes  Hoa's  titles  and  identifies  himself  with  this  god.  Asshur- 
izir-pal's  son  and  successor,  Shalmaneser  II.,  the  Black  Obelisk  king, 
in  his  opening  invocation,  assigned  Hoa  his  proper  place,  between  Bel 
and  Sin.  Sargon  placed  one  of  the  gates  of  his  new  city  under 
Hoa's  protection,  in  conjunction  with  Bilat-Ili,  "  the  Mistress  of  the 
Gods,"  believed  to  be  Gula,  the  Sun-goddess.  Sennacherib,  after  his 
successful  expedition  across  the  Persian  Gulf,  offered  sacrifice  to  Hoa 
on  the  sea-shore,  presenting  him  with  a  golden  boat,  a  golden  fish 
and  a  golden  coffer.  Hoa's  emblem,  the  serpent,  was  found  on  the 
black  stones  on  which  were  recorded  benefactions,  and  on  the  Baby- 
lonian cylinder-seals,  but  was  not  adopted  by  the  Assyrian  monarchs 
among  the  divine  symbols  worn  by  them,  nor  among  those  inscribed 
by  them  above  their  effigies.  Hoa's  name  seldom  occurs  among  the 
royal  invocations.  His  only  two  known  temples  in  Assyria  were  the 
one  at  Asshur  (now  Kileh-Sherghat)  and  the  one  at  Calah  (now  Nim- 
rud).  The  Assyrian  devotion  to  Nin,  the  tutelary  god  of  the  Assyrian 
monarchs  and  .of  their  capital,  caused  Nin's  worship  gradually  to 
supersede  that  of  Hoa. 

Beltis,  "  the  Great  Mother,"  the  wife  of  Bel,  ranked  in  Assyria 
Belti^'or  nex^  to  the  triad  embracing  Anu,  Bel  and  Hoa.     She  is  usually  men- 
Mylitta,     tioned  in  the  Assyrian  inscriptions  in  close  relation  with  her  husband. 
The  Assyrians  particularly  considered  Beltis  "  the  Queen  of  fertility," 
thus  resembling  the  Greek  Deraeter,  the  Roman  Ceres,  who  was  also 
known  as  "  the  Great  Mother."     Sargon  put  one  of  the  gates  of  his 
new  city  under  the  protection  of  Beltis,  along  with  her  husband,  Bel; 
and  Sargon's  great-grandson,  Asshur-bani-pal,  repaired  and  re-dedi- 
cated to  this  goddess  a  temple  at  Nineveh,  originally  erected  by  As- 


Hoa's 
Wife, 


in 
Assyria. 


CHALDEE-ASSYRO-BABYLONIAN    COSMOGONY    AND    RELIGION. 

shur-izir-pal.  She  also  had  a  temple  at  Asshur;  and  at  Calah  was  a 
temple  dedicated  either  to  Beltis  or  to  Ishtar,  the  epithets  used  apply- 
ing to  either  goddess.  The  goddess,  though  known  in  Assyria  as 
Beltis,  was  called  Mylitta  in  Babylonia. 

Sin,  the  Moon-god,  occupied  the  next  place  to  Beltis  in  the  Assyrian 
pantheon,  the  sixth  place  among  the  gods  where  Beltis  was  inserted, 
and  the  fifth  place  wherever  her  name  did  not  occur.  His  worship 
in  the  early  period  of  the  Assyrian  Empire  is  indicated  by  the  invo- 
cation of  Tiglath-Pileser  I.,  where  he  is  mentioned  in  the  third  place 
among  the  gods,  between  Bel  and  Shamas.  Sin's  emblem,  the  crescent, 
was  worn  by  Asshur-izir-pal,  and  is  always  seen  among  the  divine 
symbols  which  the  Assyrian  monarchs  inscribed  over  their  effigies.  Sin 
was  one  of  the  most  highly  esteemed  of  the  Assyrian  deities,  and  his 
sign  is  found  as  often  as  any  other  among  both  Assyrian  and  Baby- 
lonian cylinder-seals.  His  name  is  sometimes  seen  in  the  appellation 
of  kings  and  princes ;  as  in  that  of  Sennacherib,  signifying  "  Sin 
multiplies  brethren."  Sargon  was  particularly  devoted  to  the  wor- 
ship of  Sin,  after  whom  he  named  one  of  his  sons,  and  to  whom,  in 
connection  with  Shamas,  the  Sun-god,  he  erected  a  temple  at  his  new 
city,  assigning  to  him  the  second  place  among  the  tutelary  deities  of 
the  city  of  Dur-Sargina.  The  Assyrians  seem  to  have  regarded  Sin 
as  a  very  ancient  god,  and  when  they  desired  to  mark  a  very  old  period 
they  would  say :  "  From  the  origin  of  the  god  Sin."  This  was  a 
vestige  of  the  old  connection  of  Assyria  with  Chaldaea,  whose  primi- 
tive capital,  Ur,  was  under  the  special  protection  of  the  Moon-god, 
and  where  the  most  ancient  temple  was  dedicated  to  his  worship.  The 
only  two  temples  known  to  have  been  erected  to  Sin  in  Assyria  were 
the  one  dedicated  to  him,  along  with  Shamas,  by  Sargon  at  his  new 
city,  and  the  other  to  Sin  alone  at  Calah. 

Shamas,  the  Sun-god,  ranked  next  below  Sin,  but  was  more  popular 
and  far  more  generally  worshiped  in  Assyria.  Many  passages  would 
seem  to  indicate  that  the  Assyrian  kings  esteemed  him  next  to  Asshur, 
as  they  really  ranked  him  above  Bel  in  some  of  their  lists.  The 
emblem  of  the  Sun-god,  the  four-rayed  orb,  was  worn  upon  the  neck 
of  the  Assyrian  king,  and  is  seen  more  generally  than  most  others  upon 
the  cylinder-seals.  In  some  cases  the  emblem  of  Shamas  is  even  united 
with  Asshur's  emblem,  the  central  circle  of  which  is  marked  by  the 
fourfold  rays  of  Shamas.  It  is  known  that  the  worship  of  Shamas 
in  Assyria  extended  to  a  very  remote  antiquity.  Tiglath-Pileser  I. 
mentions  him  in  his  invocation,  and  represents  himself  as  ruling  spe- 
cially under  his  auspices.  Asshur-izir-pal  names  Asshur  and  Shamas 
as  the  tutelary  gods  under  whose  influence  he  conducted  his  wars. 
Asshur-izir-pal's  son  and  successor,  Shalmanaser  II.,  the  Black  Obe- 


309 


Sin,  the 
Moon- 
god,  in 

Assyria. 


Shamas, 
the  Sun- 
god,  in 
Assyria. 


310 


CHALD^EA,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Gula,  the 
Wife  of 
Shamas, 

in 

Assyria. 


Vul,  the 
Air-god, 

in 
Assyria. 


lisk  king,  gives  Shamas  his  proper  place  among  the  gods  whom  he 
invokes  at  the  beginning  of  his  long  Inscription.  The  kings  of  the 
New  or  Lower  Assyrian  Empire  rendered  him  more  devotion  than  their 
predecessors.  Sargon  dedicated  the  north  gate  of  his  new  city  to 
Shamas,  along  with  Vul,  the  Air-god;  and  erected  a  temple  to  both 
Shamas  and  Sin  at  the  same  city,  assigning  the  Sun-god  the  third 
place  among  the  tutelary  gods  of  the  new  city.  Sennacherib  and 
Esar-haddon  named  Shamas  next  to  Asshur  in  passages  when  men- 
tioning the  gods  whom  they  considered  their  chief  protectors.  It 
seems  the  only  special  temple  dedicated  to  the  worship  of  Shamas  was 
the  one  assigned  to  him  and  Sin  j  ointly  at  Sargon's  new  city ;  but  his 
images  are  frequently  seen  among  the  lists  of  idols,  so  that  he  may 
have  been  worshiped  in  temples  consecrated  to  other  deities.  His 
emblem  is  usually  seen  united  with  that  of  the  Moon-god,  either  beside 
or  above  it. 

Gula,  the  Sun-goddess,  the  wife  of  Shamas,  was  not  very  highly 
ranked  among  the  Assyrian  deities.  It  is  true,  her  emblem,  the  eight- 
rayed  disk,  was  borne  by  the  Assyrian  kings,  along  with  her  husband's 
symbol,  and  is  often  inscribed  on  the  rock  tablets,  on  the  stones  on 
which  benefactions  are  recorded,  and  on  the  cylinder-seals.  But  her 
name  is  not  often  found  in  the  inscriptions,  and,  where  it  does  occur, 
it  is  seen  low  down  in  the  lists.  Gula  is  the  next  to  the  last  among 
the  thirteen  deities  named  in  the  Black  Obelisk  invocation.  The  only 
other  places  where  she  is  mentioned  is  in  inscriptions  of  a  distinctly- 
religious  nature.  At  Asshur  was  a  temple  dedicated  to  Gula,  Ishtar 
and  ten  inferior  deities.  Gula's  other  Assyrian  temple  was  at  Calah, 
where  her  husband  likewise  had  a  temple.  Gula  has  been  identified 
with  Bilat-Ili,  "  the  Mistress  of  the  Gods,"  to  whom,  together  with 
Hoa,  Sargon  dedicated  one  of  the  gates  of  his  new  city. 

Vul,  the  Air-god,  was  known  in  Assyria  from  the  earliest  times;  a 
temple  having  been  erected  at  Asshur,  during  the  period  of  Assyria's 
subjection  to  Chaldaea,  by  Shamas- Vul,  the  son  of  Ismi-Dagon,  King 
of  Chaldsea;  as  well  as  the  temple  which  the  same  king  dedicated  to 
both  Anu  and  Vul.  As  these  edifices  had  fallen  to  ruin  by  the  time 
of  Tiglath-Pileser  I.,  that  monarch  rebuilt  them  from  their  base;  and 
Vul,  being  regarded  as  one  of  the  special  "  guardian  deities,"  was  wor- 
shiped in  both  temples.  In  Shalmanaser  II.'s  Black  Obelisk  invoca- 
tion the  intermediate  place  between  Sin  and  Shamas  is  assigned  to  Vul, 
and  on  that  obelisk  is  recorded  the  fact  that  Shalmanaser  II.  held  a 
festival  in  honor  of  both  Asshur  and  Vul.  Sargon  gave  Vul  the  fourth 
place  among  the  tutelary  deities  of  his  new  city,  and  dedicated  to  him 
the  north  gate  in  connection  with  Shamas,  the  Sun-god.  Sennacherib 
spoke  of  hurling  thunder  on  his  enemies  like  Vul,  and  other  Assyrian 


CHALDEE-ASSYRO-BABYLONIAN    COSMOGONY    AND    RELIGION. 


311 


monarchs  say  they  "  rush  on  the  enemy  like  the  whirlwind  of  Vul,"  or 
"  sweep  a  country  as  with  the  whirlwind  of  Vul."  The  Tiglath- 
Pileser  Inscription  mentions  Vul  as  "  he  who  causes  the  tempest  to  rage 
over  hostile  lands."  The  name  Vul  often  occurred  as  an  element  in 
the  names  of  kings  and  other  personages,  as  in  Vul-lush,  Shamas-Vul, 
etc.  The  symbol  of  Vul,  the  double  or  triple  bolt,  is  often  seen  among 
the  emblems  worn  by  the  Assyrian  monarchs,  and  engraved  above  their 
hoads  on  the  rock  tablets.  Besides  his  two  temples  at  Asshur,  Vul  had 
a  temple  at  Calah  dedicated  to  him  and  his  wife,  the  goddess  Shala. 

Nin  was  one  of  the  most  devotedly  worshiped  in  Assyria  among  the 
second  order  of  gods.  The  oldest  traditions  mention  Nin  as  the 
founder  of  the  Assyrian  royal  race,  and  the  mighty  city  which  finally 
became  so  famous  as  the  capital  and  metropolis  of  the  Assyrian  Em- 
pire derived  its  name  from  this  god.  As  far  back  as  the  thirteenth 
century  before  Christ,  Nin  became  an  element  in  royal  names.  The 
Ninus  of  the  Greek  writers  has  been  regarded  by  moderns  as  the  Nin 
of  the  Assyrian  inscriptions.  Herodotus  and  Ctesias  both  consid- 
ered Ninus  as  the  founder  of  the  Assyrian  dynasty.  Nin's  name  en- 
tered as  an  element  into  the  names  of  three  Assyrian  kings — Nin- 
pala-zira  and  the  two  Tiglathi-Nins.  The  principal  temples  dedicated 
to  Nin  were  at  Calah.  The  vast  edifice  at  the  north-western  corner 
of  the  great  Nimrud  mound,  including  the  pyramidal  elevation  con- 
stituting the  most  conspicuous  feature  of  the  ruins,  was  a  temple  dedi- 
cated to  Nin  by  Asshur-izir-pal,  who  erected  the  north-west  palace. 
It  has  been  supposed  that  this  edifice  was  the  "  busta  Nini  "  of  the 
Greek  writers,  where  Ninus,  whom  the  Greeks  considered  the  hero- 
founder  of  the  Assyrian  nation,  was  interred  and  specially  worshiped. 
This  great  temple  was  named  Bit-zira,  or  Beth-zira,  and  from  its  fane 
Nin  had  the  title  Pal-zira,  "  the  son  of  Zira."  Nin's  other  temple  at 
Calah  was  named  Bit-kura,  or  Beth-kura,  from  the  fane  of  which  Nin 
was  called  Pal-kura,  "  the  son  of  Kura." 

Tiglath-Pileser  I.,  the  first  Assyrian  king  who  has  left  us  an  his- 
torical inscription,  and  who  considered  himself  under  Nin's  guardian- 
ship, is  called  "  the  illustrious  prince  whom  Asshur  and  Nin  have 
exalted  to  the  utmost  wishes  of  his  heart."  This  monarch  mentions 
Nin  sometimes  alone,  and  sometimes  along  with  Asshur,  as  his  "  guard- 
ian deity."  Nin  and  Nergal  are  spoken  of  as  sharpening  weapons  for 
Tiglath-Pileser,  and  it  is  further  said  that  under  the  auspices  of  Nin 
the  most  ferocious  animals  fall  beneath  these  weapons.  Asshur-izir- 
pal  erected  a  splendid  temple  to  Nin  at  Calah.  Asshur-izir-pal's 
grandson,  Shamas-Vul  I.,  dedicated  to  Nin  the  obelisk  which  he  set 
up  at  Calah  to  commemorate  his  victories.  Sargon  put  the  new  city 
which  he  founded  under  Nin's  protection,  and  invoked  this  god  spe- 


Nin,  the 
Assyrian 
Dynas- 
ty's 

Ancestor 
Deified, 

and 

Honored 

in  the 

Name 

Nineveh. 


TheNinus 

of  the 

Greek 

Writers. 


Assyrian 

Kingly 

Reverence 

for  Nin. 


312 


CHALDvEA,   ASSYRIA,   BABYLONIA. 


His 

Symbol, 
Winged 

Man- 
headed 

Bull. 


Merodach 

in 
Assyria. 


Nergal, 

the 

Assyrian 
Dynas- 
ty's 
Divine 
Ancestor. 

His 

Symbol, 
Winged 
Man- 
headed 
Lion. 


cially  to  guard  his  gorgeous  palace.  Sargon's  veneration  for  Nin 
was  strikingly  indicated  by  the  ornamentation  of  that  magnificent 
structure ;  and  Nin's  emblem,  the  winged  man-headed  bull,  stood  guard 
at  all  its  principal  gateways.  The  figure  strangling  a  lion,  occupy- 
ing so  prominent  a  place  on  the  harem  portal  facing  the  great  court, 
represented  this  god.  Sargon  attributed  his  victories  in  war  to  the 
favor  of  Nin,  and  for  this  reason  he  placed  Nin's  emblems  on  the 
sculptures  representing  his  military  expeditions.  Sennacherib,  Sar- 
gon's son  and  successor,  had  the  same  reverence  for  Nin,  as  he  also 
placed  the  winged  man-headed  bull  at  most  of  the  doorways  of  his 
magnificent  palace  at  Nineveh,  and  assigned  the  figure  strangling  the 
lion  a  prominent  place  on  the  grand  fa9ade  of  the  same  splendid  edifice. 
Esar-haddon  states  that  he  continued  in  the  worship  of  Nin,  and  that 
he  set  up  the  emblem  of  that  god  over  his  own  royal  effigy,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  symbols  of  Asshur,  Shamas,  Bel  and  Ishtar. 

Merodach  was  a  god  mentioned  by  most  of  the  early  Assyrian  kings 
in  their  opening  invocations,  and  an  allusion  in  their  inscriptions  in- 
dicates that  he  was  regarded  as  a  very  powerful  god.  Shalmaneser 
II.,  the  Black  Obelisk  king,  says  in  one  place  that  "  the  fear  of  Asshur 
and  Merodach  fell  upon  his  enemies."  But  Merodach  was  not  a  popu- 
lar deity  in  Assyria  until  the  later  times  of  the  empire,  Vul-lush  III. 
being  the  first  monarch  who  assigned  him  a  prominent  place  in  the 
Assyrian  pantheon.  Sargon  and  his  successors  continued  the  worship 
of  Merodach.  Sargon  constantly  ascribed  his  power  to  the  united 
favor  of  Asshur  and  Merodach,  and  Esar-haddon  sculptured  the  em- 
blems of  these  two  gods  over  the  images  of  foreign  gods  presented  to 
him  by  a  suppliant  prince.  But  Merodach  did  not  have  any  temple 
in  Assyria. 

Nergal  was  a  god  highly  reverenced,  being  regarded  by  the  Assyr- 
ian monarchs  as  their  divine  ancestor,  Sargon  having  traced  the  line 
of  descent  through  three  hundred  and  fifty  generations.  Nergal's 
symbol  was  the  winged  man-headed  lion,  or  the  national  lion,  whose 
figure  enters  largely  into  Assyrian  architecture.  The  confident  reli- 
ance of  the  Assyrians  on  Nergal's  protection  is  proven  by  the  con- 
spicuous place  his  emblems  everywhere  occupied  in  their  palaces.  Nin 
and  Nergal,  as  the  gods  of  war  and  hunting,  in  which  occupations  the 
Assyrian  kings  spent  their  lives,  were  tutelary  gods  of  these  monarchs ; 
and  these  two  deities  are  found  equally  associated  in  the  royal  inscrip- 
tions and  sculptures.  Sennacherib  dedicated  a  temple  to  Nergal  at 
Tarbisi  (now  Sherif-Khan)  ;  and  he  may  have  had  one  at  Calah,  as  a 
smaller  temple  with  the  lion  entrance  is  found  in  the  ruins  on  the 
northwest  corner  of  the  Nimrud  mound,  and  as  he  was  mentioned  as 
one  of  the  "  resident  gods  "  of  Calah. 


CHALDEE-ASSYRO-BABYLONIAN    COSMOGONY   AND    RELIGION. 

Ishtar  was  a  favorite  goddess  of  the  Assyrian  kings,  who  styled  her  Ishtar,  or 
"  their  lady,"  and  sometimes  coupled  her  with  Asshur,  "  the  Great 
Lord,"  in  their  invocations.  Ishtar  had  a  very  old  temple  at  Asshur, 
the  primitive  Assyrian  capital,  and  this  temple  Tiglath-Pileser  I.  re- 
paired and  beautified.  Asshur-izir-pal  erected  a  second  temple  to  her 
at  Nineveh,  and  she  had  a  third  at  Arbela,  which  Asshur-bani-pal  says 
he  restored.  Sargon  put  the  western  gate  of  his  new  city  under  the 
united  protection  of  Ishtar  and  Anu.  Sargon's  son  and  successor, 
Sennacherib,  spoke  of  Asshur  and  Ishtar  as  about  to  "  call  the  kings 
his  sons  to  their  sovereignty  over  Assyria,"  and  implored  Asshur  and 
Ishtar  to  "  hear  their  prayers."  Sennacherib's  grandson,  Asshur- 
bani-pal,  the  royal  hunter,  was  devoted  to  Ishtar,  whom  he  considered 
the  special  patron  of  his  favorite  pastime,  the  chase  of  the  lion  and 
the  wild  bull.  Ishtar  appears  as  one  goddess  divided  into  many;  as 
the  Ishtar  of  Nineveh,  the  Ishtar  of  Arbela  and  the  Ishtar  of  Baby- 
lon are  all  distinguished  from  each  other,  a  separate  address  being 
made  to  each  of  them  in  the  same  invocation,  as  in  that  of  Sennacherib 
and  in  that  of  Esar-haddon.  Thus  though  Ishtar  was  a  general  object 
of  worship  throughout  Assyria,  she  had  a  distinctly  local  character 
in  the  various  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  cities. 

Nebo  was  one  of  the  most  ancient  of  Assyrian  gods,  and  his  name 
enters  as  an  element  into  a  king's  name  in  the  twelfth  century  before  Assyria. 
Christ,  namely  that  of  Mutaggil-Nebo.  But  he  was  not  extensively 
worshiped  until  VuK^h  III.  had  given  him  a  prominent  place  in  the 
Assyrian  pantheon  after  leading  an  expedition  into  Babylonia,  where 
Nebo  had  always  been  highly  honored.  Vul-lush  III.  set  up  two 
statues  to  Nebo  at  Calah,  and  perhaps  erected  to  him  the  temple  there 
called  Bit-Saggil,  or  Beth-Saggil,  from  which  Nebo  derived  his  name 
of  Pal-Bit-Saggil.  Sennacherib  and  Esar-haddon  held  this  god  in 
high  veneration,  the  latter  putting  him  above  Merodach  in  an  im- 
portant invocation.  Asshur-bani-pal  also  paid  Nebo  much  reverence, 
alluding  to  him  and  his  wife,  Warmita,  as  the  deities  under  whose 
auspices  he  engaged  in  some  literary  work. 

After  these  chief  deities,  the  Assyrians  recognized  and  adored  a  The  Chief 
multitude  of  inferior  divinities.     Beltis,  the  wife  of  Bel ;  and  Gula,      8°  s  ^" 
the  wife  of  Shamas;  also  Ishtar,  who  is  sometimes  alluded  to  as  the    Assyria, 
wife  of  Nebo,  were  all  goddesses  of  exalted  rank  and  importance.     But 
Sheruba,  the  wife  of  Asshur ;  Anata,  or  Anuta,  the  wife  of  Anu ;  Dav- 
kina,  the  wife  of  Hoa;  Shala,  the  wife  of  Vul;  Zirbanit,  the  wife  of 
Merodach;  Laz,  the  wife  of  Nergal;  and  Warmita,  usually  called  the 
wife  of  Nebo,  did  not  occupy  a  place  in  the  Assyrian  pantheon  at  all 
in  comparison  with  the  dignity  and  rank  of  their  husbands.     Nin,  the 
Assyrian  Hercules,  and  Sin,  the  Moon-god,  had  wives  also;  but  their 


314 


CHALD^EA,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Their 
Inferior 
Position. 


The 

Minor 

Gods  in 

Assyria. 


Good 
Genii. 


Bad  Genii. 


proper  names  are  not  known,  Nin's  wife  being  called  "  the  Queen  of 
the  Land,"  and  Sin's  wife  "  the  Great  Lady." 

Thus  the  Assyrians  usually  combined  in  the  same  temple  the  wor- 
ship of  the  male  and  the  female  principle;  the  female  deities — with 
the  exception  of  Beltis,  the  wife  of  Bel ;  Gula,  the  wife  of  Shamas ; 
and  Ishtar,  either  as  an  independent  goddess  or  as  the  wife  of  Nebo, 
who  are  as  strong  and  distinct  as  their  husbands — are  in  most  cases 
only  the  reflection  of  their  husbands,  thus  having  an  unsubstantial 
character,  and  occupying  a  very  insignificant  position  in  the  pantheon. 
Some  minor  goddesses,  among  whom  was  Telita,  the  goddess  of  the 
great  marshes  near  Babylon,  stood  alone,  unassociated  with  any  male 
deity.  Most  of  the  minor  male  divinities  likewise  had  no  female  com- 
panions, the  notable  exceptions  to  this  rule  being  Martu,  whose  wife 
was  called  "  the  Lady  of  Tiganna,"  and  Idak,  God  of  the  Tigris, 
whose  wife  was  Belat-Muk. 

Prominent  among  the  minor  male  divinities  were  Martu,  called  a 
son  of  Anu  and  "  the  Minister  of  the  deep,"  and  corresponding  to  the 
Greek  Erebus ;  Sargana,  also  ranked  as  a  son  of  Anu,  and  from  whom 
Sargon  is  supposed  to  have  derived  his  name ;  Idak,  God  of  the  Tigris ; 
Supulat,  Lord  of  the  Euphrates;  and  II,  who,  though  the  Babylonian 
chief  god,  occupied  an  humble  position  in  the  Assyrian  pantheon. 
Tiglath-Pileser  I.  repaired  a  temple  to  II  at  Asshur  about  B.  C.  1150. 
Besides  these  just  mentioned,  there  were  a  multitude  of  minor  Assyr- 
ian divinities,  of  whom  but  very  little  is  yet  known. 

The  Assyrians  are  supposed  to  have  believed  in  the  existence  of 
genii,  some  of  whom  they  considered  powers  of  good,  others  powers  of 
evil.  The  winged  figure  wearing  the  horned  cap,  usually  represented 
as  waiting  upon  the  king  when  he  is  engaged  in  any  sacred  capacity, 
is  believed  to  be  his  tutelary  genius,  the  spirit  carefully  watching  over 
him  and  protecting  him  from  the  spirits  of  darkness.  This  figure 
generally  carries  a  pomegranate  or  a  pine-cone  in  the  right  hand,  and 
sometimes  holds  a  plaited  bag  or  basket  in  the  left,  while  at  other 
times  this  hand  is  free.  The  pine-cone,  when  carried,  is  always  pointed 
towards  the  king,  as  if  signifying  the  means  of  communication  be- 
tween the  protector  and  the  protected,  the  instrument  conveying  grace 
and  strength  from  the  genius  to  the  human  being  whom  he  had  taken 
under  his  care.  The  sacred  basket  is  often  very  elegantly  and  elabo- 
rately ornamented,  sometimes  with  winged  figures  in  adoration  before 
the  sacred  tree,  and  they  themselves  holding  baskets.  The  hawk- 
headed  figure,  also  found  attending  upon  the  king  and  watching  his 
actions,  is  likewise  believed  to  represent  a  good  genius. 

Few  representations  of  evil  genii  have  been  discovered.  Among 
these  is  the  monster — half  lion,  half  eagle,  driven  into  retreat  by  VuFs 


11 1 


ASSYRIAN  SCULPTURE 
Figure  of  a  Genius  with  head  of  an  Eagle 


CHAJLDEE-ASSYRO-BABYLONIAN   COSMOGONY    AND    RELIGION. 


315 


thunderbolts — found  among  the  sculptures  at  Nimrud,  the  ancient 
Calah.  Certain  grotesque  statuettes  found  at  Khorsabad,  represent- 
ing a  human  figure  having  a  lion's  head  with  the  ears  of  an  ass,  have 
likewise  been  classed  with  these  evil  genii.  In  one  case  we  see  two  mon- 
sters with  heads  like  the  one  just  described,  placed  on  human  bodies 
whose  legs  end  in  eagle's  claws,  both  armed  with  daggers  and  maces, 
and  struggling  with  each  other.  This  sculpture — found  in  the  ruins 
of  Asshur-bani-pal's  great  palace  at  Nineveh,  and  now  in  the  British 
Museum — is  believed  to  be  a  symbolical  illustration  of  the  tendency 
of  evil  to  turn  upon  itself  and  waste  its  strength  by  internal  conten- 
tion and  turmoil.  Instances  are  abundant  in  which  a  human  figure 
with  the  head  of  a  hawk  or  an  eagle  threatens  a  winged  man-headed 
lion,  the  emblem  of  Nergal,  with  a  strap  or  a  mace;  thus  typifying 
the  spirit  of  evil  attacking  a  god,  or  the  hawk-headed  genius  driving 
Nergal  out  of  Assyria — an  emblematic  representation  of  war. 

The  Assyrian  religion  had  a  strongly-idolatrous  character  in  its 
mode  of  worship.  The  different  images  of  the  same  deity  came  to 
be  regarded  as  separate  objects  of  worship  in  their  different  temples; 
and  thus  we  find  the  Ishtar  of  Arbela,  the  Ishtar  of  Nineveh  and  the 
Ishtar  of  Babylon  invoked  by  the  same  monarch  in  the  same  inscrip- 
tion as  separate  divinities.  The  identification  of  the  god  with  the 
image  is  exemplified  in  the  great  Inscription  of  Tiglath-Pileser  I., 
where  the  king  boasts  that  he  set  up  Anu  and  Vul  in  their  places,  and 
where  he  constantly  identifies  the  images  which  he  carries  off  from 
foreign  lands  with  their  gods.  In  the  same  spirit  Sennacherib  in- 
quires, through  Rabshakeh:  "  Where  are  the  gods  of  Hamath  and 
of  Arpad?  Where  are  the  gods  of  Sepharvaim,  Hena  and  Ivah?" 
The  meaning  of  these  interrogatory  expressions  is  that  the  gods  of 
those  foreign  lands  had  been  carried  captive  to  Assyria  when  their 
idols  were  conveyed  there.  When  Hezekiah,  King  of  Judah,  had  de- 
stroyed all  the  images  throughout  his  dominions  Sennacherib  thought 
that  monarch  had  deprived  his  subjects  of  all  divine  protection.  The 
usual  Assyrian  custom  of  carrying  off  the  idols  of  foreign  countries 
was  designed  to  weaken  the  enemies  of  Assyria  by  depriving1  them  of 
their  divine  protectors.  These  idols  were  not  removed  in  an  irreverent 
or  sacrilegious  manner,  and  were  deposited  in  the  chief  Assyrian  tem- 
ples, so  that  these  gods  would  thereafter  be  among  the  celestial  guard- 
ians of  the  Assyrians. 

Assyrian  idols  were  made  from  stone,  baked  clay  or  metal.  Some 
images  of  Nebo  and  of  Ishtar  have  been  found  among  the  ruins. 
Those  of  Nebo  are  standing  figures  somewhat  larger  than  the  human 
They  show  the  marks  of  the  ravages  of  time,  and,  like  many 


size. 


Assyrian 
Idolatry. 


Inscrip- 
tions of 
Tiglath- 
Pileser  I. 
and  Sen- 
nacherib. 


Capture 

of 

Foreign 
Idols. 


Idols  of 
Nebo. 


of  the  winged  man-headed  lions  and  bulls,  are  disfigured  by  several 
1—23 


CHALD^EA,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Clay 

Idols. 


Assyrian 
Sacrifi- 
ces. 


Bas-relief 

Scenes  of 

Animal 

Sacrifices. 


Lord 
Aber- 
deen's 
Black 
Stone 
Repre- 
senting a 
Bull  Sac- 
rifice. 


lines  of  cuneiform  inscriptions,  stating  the  fact  that  the  statues  rep- 
resent Nebo,  and  relating  the  circumstances  of  their  dedication. 

The  few  clay  idols  found  are  usually  of  good  material  and  of  dif- 
ferent sizes,  smaller  than  the  full  human  stature,  but  are  commonly 
mere  statuettes  less  than  a  foot  high.  These  statuettes  are  believed 
to  have  been  mostly  intended  for  private  use  among  the  people  in  gen- 
eral, while  the  stone  idols  were  designed  for  public  worship  in  the 
shrines  and  temples.  Idols  in  metal  have  not  been  found  among  the 
Assyrian  remains,  but  a  passage  from  the  Hebrew  prophet  Nahum 
indicates  that  the  Assyrians  had  images  made  of  that  material  in  their 
temples.  In  alluding  to  Nineveh,  Nahum  says :  "  And  the  Lord  hath 
given  a  commandment  concerning  thee,  that  no  more  of  thy  name  be 
sown ;  out  of  the  house  of  thy  gods  will  I  cut  off  the  graven  image  and 
the  molten  image." 

The  Assyrian  method  of  worship  consisted  mainly  of  sacrifices  and 
offerings.  Tiglath-Pileser  I.  states  in  his  long  Inscription  that  he 
offered  sacrifices  to  Anu  and  Vul  when  he  had  finished  repairing  their 
temple.  Asshur-izir-pal  states  that  he  sacrificed  to  the  gods  after 
having  embarked  on  the  Mediterranean.  Vul-lush  III.  sacrificed  to 
Merodach,  Nebo  and  Nergal  in  their  respective  temples  at  Babylon, 
Borsippa  and  Cutha.  Sennacherib  offered  sacrifices  to  Hoa  on  the 
seashore  after  his  expedition  in  the  Persian  Gulf  against  Susiana. 
Esar-haddon  "  slew  great  and  costly  sacrifices  "  at  Nineveh  when  he 
had  finished  his  great  palace  in  that  city.  The  Assyrian  monarchs  in 
general  considered  sacrifice  a  duty,  and  this  was  the  usual  method  by 
which  they  propitiated  the  favor  of  the  national  deities. 

The  bas-reliefs  give  us  scant  information  concerning  the  manner 
of  the  Assyrian  sacrifices,  but  they  show  that  the  animal  specially 
sacrificed  was  the  bull.  The  inscriptions  inform  us  that  sheep  and 
goats  were  likewise  used  for  sacrifice,  and  there  is  a  representation  of 
a  ram  or  wild  goat  being  led  to  the  altar.  On  Lord  Aberdeen's  Black 
Stone,  a  monument  of  Esar-haddon's  reign,  a  bull  is  represented  as 
brought  up  to  a  temple  by  the  king.  On  a  mutilated  obelisk  of  As- 
shur-bani-pal's  time,  now  in  the  British  Museum,  the  whole  sacrificial 
scene  is  presented  to  our  view.  The  king  and  six  priests,  one  of  whom 
carries  a  cup,  while  the  other  five  are  employed  about  the  sacrificial 
animal,  advance  in  procession  towards  the  front  of  the  temple,  where 
the  god  with  the  horned  cap  on  his  head  occupies  a  throne,  while  a 
beardless  attendant  priest  is  paying  adoration  to  him.  The  king 
pours  a  libation  over  a  large  bowl,  fixed  in  a  stand,  just  in  front  of  a 
tall  fire-altar,  from  which  flames  arise.  The  priest  stands  close  be- 
hind with  a  cup  in  his  hand.  The  bull's  advance  is  stayed  by  a 
bearded  priest  just  in  front  of  the  animal.  Two  priests  walk  behind 


CHALDEE-ASSYRO-BABYLONIAN    COSMOGONY    AND    RELIGION. 


the  bull  and  hold  him  with  a  rope  fastened  to  one  of  his  front  legs 
near  the  hoof.  These  two  priests  and  two  others  behind  them  appear, 
from  the  position  of  their  heads  and  arms,  to  be  engaged  in  a  solemn 
chant.  The  flame  on  the  altar  indicates  that  the  sacrifice  is  to  be 
burned  upon  that  altar,  which  is  only  large  enough  to  burn  a  part 
of  the  animal  at  a  time. 

Assyrian  altars  differed  in  form  and  size.  Some  were  square  and 
not  high,  with  the  top  ornamented  with  gradines,  below  which  the  sides 
were  plain  or  fluted.  Others  about  the  same  height  were  triangular, 
with  a  round  top  consisting  of  a  plain  flat  stone,  sometimes  inscribed 
round  the  edge.  An  altar  of  this  form  was  discovered  by  M.  Botta 
at  Khorsabad.  Another  of  almost  the  same  shape  was  found  by  Mr. 
Layard  at  Nimrud,  and  is  now  in  the  British  Museum.  A  third  kind 
of  altar  resembled  a  portable  stand,  narrow  but  reaching  up  to  a  man's 
head.  These  kinds  of  altars  the  Assyrians  carried  about  in  their 
expeditions,  and  in  the  entrenched  camps  priests  are  sometimes  seen 
officiating  at  them  in  their  sacerdotal  costume. 

The  Assyrian  kings  deposited  in  the  temples  of  their  gods,  as  thank- 
offerings,  many  precious  products  from  the  countries  which  they  in- 
vaded  with  their  armies.  Various  kinds  of  stones  or  marbles,  rare 
metals  and  images  of  foreign  deities,  are  specially  named  in  the  Tig- 
lath-Pileser  Inscription  as  among  such  offerings.  Silver  and  gold  — 
so  largely  employed  in  the  adornment  of  temples  that  they  were  said 
to  have  been  sometimes  "  as  splendid  as  the  sun  "  —  were  thus  dedicated 
to  the  gods. 

The  sculptures,  mostly  monuments  erected  by  the  kings,  represent 
their  own  religious  performances,  but  not  those  of  the  people.  The 
Assyrian  kings  thus  exercised  priestly  functions,  and  in  the  religious 
scenes  which  illustrate  their  acts  of  worship  no  priest  is  represented 
as  intervening  between  the  king  and  the  god,  but  all  priests  occupy 
a  very  unimportant  position.  The  king  himself  stands  and  worships 
near  the  holy  tree,  pours  out  libations  with  his  own  hands,  and  may 
himself  have  slain  victims  for  sacrifice.  As  the  Babylonians  and  all 
other  Oriental  nations  had  their  priesthoods,  it  is  likewise  probable  that 
the  religious  affairs  of  the  Assyrian  people  were  conducted  under  the 
auspices  of  their  priests,  whom  the  cylinders  represent  as  introducing 
worshipers  to  the  gods,  and  who  are  attired  in  long  robes  and  wearing 
mitres  upon  their  heads.  The  worshiper  is  usually  represented  as 
carrying  an  antelope  or  a  young  goat,  intended  to  propitiate  the  deity. 
The  Assyrian  sculptures  generally  represent  the  priests  without 
beards. 

At  the  Assyrian  festivals  great  multitudes,  particularly  of  the  chief 
men,  assembled;  many  sacrifices  were  offered,  and  the  festivities  con- 


Assyria* 


Assyrian 


Sculp- 

g  tured  . 

the 


Worship 


Assyriau 
Jesat^al!' 
Fasts 


318 


CHALD^A,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Assyrian 
Religious 
Senti- 
ment. 


Assyrian 
Religious 
Ceremo- 
nial. 


tinued  several  days.  Many  of  the  worshipers  were  afforded  accom- 
modations in  the  royal  palace,  to  which  the  temple  was  commonly  only 
an  addition,  and  were  fed  at  the  monarch's  expense  and  given  lodging 
in  the  halls  and  other  apartments.  The  Assyrian  religion  also  em- 
braced fasting,  as  attested  exclusively  by  the  Book  of  Jonah.  When 
a  fast  was  proclaimed,  the  king,  the  nobles  and  the  people  attired 
themselves  in  sackcloth,  sprinkled  ashes  upon  their  heads,  and  abstained 
from  eating  and  drinking  until  the  fast  was  ended.  The  animals 
within  the  walls  of  the  city  where  the  fast  was  ordered  were  also  robed 
in  sackcloth,  and  were  likewise  denied  food  and  drink.  Business  was 
suspended,  and  the  entire  populace  united  in  prayer  to  Asshur,  "  the 
Great  Lord,"  thus  imploring  his  pardon  and  seeking  to  propitiate  his 
favor.  These  were  not  simply  formal  ceremonies.  On  the  occasion 
alluded  to  in  the  Book  of  Jonah,  the  repentance  of  the  Ninevites  ap- 
pears to  have  been  sincere.  Says  this  authority :  "  God  saw  their 
works,  that  they  turned  from  their  evil  way ;  and  God  repented  of  the 
evil  that  he  said  he  would  do  unto  them ;  and  he  did  it  not." 

Altogether  the  Assyrians  were  a  strongly-religious  people,  although 
not  as  intensely  so  as  the  Egyptians.  Their  temples,  however,  were 
subordinated  to  their  palaces,  and  the  most  imposing  emblems  of  their 
gods,  such  as  the  winged  man-headed  bulls  and  lions,  symbolizing 
respectively  Nin  and  Nergal,  were  degraded  to  mere  architectural 
ornaments.  Their  religion  was  very  gross  and  sensuous  in  its  nature, 
and  its  intensely-materialistic  character  is  attested  by  the  practice 
of  image-worship.  The  Assyrians  worshiped  more  by  means  of  sacri- 
fices and  offerings  than  by  prayer,  though  in  times  of  distress  and 
misfortune  they  could  offer  prayers  of  the  deepest  sincerity,  which 
goes  to  prove  that  they  were  actuated  by  honest  motives  and  purposes 
concerning  their  numerous  solemn  addresses  and  invocations,  as  read 
in  their  public  and  private  documents.  The  devotion  of  the  learned 
to  religious  subjects  is  shown  by  the  many  mythological  tablets;  and 
the  piety  of  the  masses  is  indicated  by  the  general  character  of  their 
names,  and  by  the  almost  universal  custom  of  inscribing  sacred  figures 
and  symbols  upon  their  signets. 

The  sensuous  nature  of  the  religion  consequently  led  to  an  osten- 
tatious ceremonial,  a  taste  for  pompous  processions,  and  the  use  of 
gorgeous  vestments ;  the  last  being  very  elaborately  represented  in  the 
Nimrud  sculptures.  The  costume  of  the  priests  was  magnificent,  their 
robes  being  elegantly  embroidered,  mostly  with  religious  figures  and 
emblems,  such  as  the  winged  circle,  the  pine-cone,  the  pomegranate, 
the  sacred  tree,  the  winged  man-headed  lion,  etc.  The  officiating 
priests  wore  armlets,  bracelets,  necklaces  and  ear-rings;  and  their 
heads  were  encircled  with  an  elegantly-adorned  fillet?  or  covered  with 


CHALDEE-ASSYRO-BABYLONIAN   COSMOGONY   AND   RELIGION. 


319 


a  mitre  or  a  showy  cap.  In  the  religious  processions  the  musicians 
performed  an  imposing  part. 

The  later  Babylonian  religion  being  almost  identical  with  the  old 
Chaldasan,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  go  into  detail  upon  the  subject 
in  this  connection.  The  early  Chaldaeans,  and  their  successors  in  the 
same  country,  the  later  Babylonians,  worshiped  the  same  gods  in  the 
same  temples  and  with  the  same  rites,  and  had  the  same  cosmogony, 
the  same  religious  symbols,  and  the  same  priestly  costume.  If  Urukh 
or  Chedorlaomer  could  have  risen  from  their  graves,  and  again  visited 
the  shrines  in  which  they  had  offered  sacrifices  fourteen  centuries  be- 
fore, they  would  have  seen  little  difference  between  the  ceremonies  of 
their  own  times  and  those  of  the  ages  of  Nabopolassar  and  Nebuchad- 
nezzar. In  the  later  times  the  temples  and  the  idols  were  more  mag- 
nificent, music  was  more  extensively  employed  in  the  ceremonial,  and 
corruption  concerning  priestly  impostures  and  popular  religious  cus- 
toms made  some  advance;  but  in  other  respects  the  religion  of  Nabo- 
nadius  and  Belshazzar  was  like  that  of  Urukh  and  Ilgi,  the  religion  of 
both  periods  being  the  same  in  the  objects  and  the  mode  of  worship, 
in  the  theological  ideas  entertained  and  the  ceremonial  observances 
and  practices. 

The  repair  and  restoration  of  the  ancient  temples  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, and  their  rededication  to  the  same  deities,  attests  at  once  the 
identity  of  the  gods  and  goddesses  worshiped,  as  do  likewise  the  old 
appellations  of  the  gods  as  elements  in  the  names  of  the  later  kings 
and  nobles.  But  with  all  this  general  uniformity,  there  was  a  fluctua- 
tion of  rank  and  place  among  the  gods  at  various  times,  and  distinct 
deities  were  often  confounded  with  each  other.  Nebuchadnezzar 
showed  special  devotion  to  Merodach,  bestowing  upon  him  titles  of 
honor  signifying  his  supremacy  over  all  the  other  gods,  and  identify- 
ing him  with  Bel,  the  ancient  tutelary  god  of  Babylon.  Among  the 
titles  which  Nebuchadnezzar  assigned  to  Merodach  were  the  following: 
"  the  great  lord,"  "  the  first-born  of  the  gods,"  "  the  most  ancient," 
"  the  supporter  of  sovereignty,"  "  the  king  of  the  heavens  and  the 
earth."  Nabonadius,  however,  restored  Bel  to  his  former  place  among 
the  gods,  as  distinct  from  and  above  Merodach,  and  showed  particular 
devotion  to  the  former.  This  is  proven  by  the  fact  that  in  his  day 
the  great  temple  at  Babylon  was  known  as  the  temple  of  Bel,  and  by 
the  aditional  circumstance  that  Nabonadius  named  his  eldest  son  Bel- 
shazzar, meaning  "  Bel  protects  my  son." 

In  the  same  way  the  goddesses  Beltis  and  Ishtar,  or  Nana,  are  often 
confounded,  though  the  same  was  the  case  in  this  instance  in  the  old 
Chaldagan  monarchy.  The  basis  of  this  confusion  of  deities  was  the 
esoteric  doctrine  known  by  the  priests  and  taught  by  them  to  the  kings, 


Old 

Chaldaean 
and  Later 
Baby- 
lonian 
Religion 
Almost 
Identical. 


Nebu- 
chadnez- 
zar's 
Worship 

of 
Merodach 

and 

Nabona- 

dius's 

Favor  for 

Bel. 


Con- 
founding 
of  Ishtar, 
or  Nana, 

and 

Beltis,  or 
Mylitta, 
in  Baby- 
lonia. 


320 


CHALD^A,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA. 


Bel, 
Mero- 
dach,  and 
Nebo  the 
Chief 
Later 
Baby- 
lonian 
Gods. 


Worship 
of  Nergal 
in  Baby- 
lonia. 


Local 
Worship 
of  the 
Various 
Gods  in 
Baby- 
lonia. 


Baby- 
lonian 
Idolatry. 


showing  the  actual  identity  of  the  several  gods  and  goddesses,  whom 
the  more  intelligent  and  better  informed  may  have  considered  various 
phases  of  the  Divine  Nature  and  not  as  separate  and  distinct  deities. 
The  ancient  polytheisms  apparently  had  this  origin  among  all  na- 
tions, the  various  names  and  titles  of  the  Supreme  Being  designating 
His  different  attributes  or  His  different  spheres  of  action  gradually 
coming  to  be  misapprehended  by  the  ignorant  masses,  who  regarded 
this  seeming  difference  as  appellations  of  a  number  of  deities ; 

Bel,  Merodach  and  Nebo  were  the  deities  chiefly  worshiped  by  the 
later  Babylonians,  as  attested  by  the  native  monuments,  and  confirmed 
by  the  Jewish  writers.  Nebo,  the  special  deity  of  Borsippa,  was  con- 
sidered a  kind  of  powerful  patron-saint,  under  whose  protection  it  was 
regarded  important  to  place  individuals.  Nebo's  name  is  the  most 
common  divine  element  in  the  names  of  the  kings  and  courtiers  of  the 
later  Babylonian  monarchy.  Three  of  the  seven  monarchs  of  the 
kingdom  had  names  composed  with  Nebo's — Nabopolassar,  Nebuchad- 
nezzar and  Nabonadius.  Among  courtiers  we  find  such  names  as 
Nebu-zar-adan,  Samgar-Nebo  and  Nebu-shazban.  It  is  also  believed 
that  Nebuchadnezzar's  Master  of  the  Eunuchs  named  one  of  the  young 
Jewish  princes  whom  he  was  educating  Abed-Nebo,  "  the  servant  of 
Nebo " — a  name  which  the  Jews  afterwards  corrupted  into  Abed- 
nego. 

Nergal  was  also  highly  reverenced  by  the  Babylonians.  He  was 
worshiped  at  Cutha  as  the  tutelary  divinity  of  the  city,  and  was  also 
greatly  esteemed  by  the  nation  in  general.  His  name  is  often  found 
on  cylinder  seals ;  and  is  sometimes  an  element  in  the  names  of  men, 
as  in  "  Nergal-shar-ezer,  the  Rag-Mag,"  and  in  Neriglissar,  the  king. 

The  Babylonian  religion  had  a  strong  local  character.  Bel  and 
Merodach  were  the  special  gods  of  Babylon;  Nebo  of  Borsippa;  Ner- 
gal of  Cutha ;  the  Moon-god  of  Ur,  or  Hur ;  Beltis  of  Niff er ;  Hea,  or 
Hoa,  of  Hit ;  Ana  of  Erech,  or  Huruk ;  the  Sun-god  of  Sippara,  etc. 
These  deities  were  particularly  honored  at  their  respective  places, 
though  all  were  recognized  in  a  general  way  throughout  the  land. 
Each  god  was  specially  worshiped  in  his  own  city,  where  was  located 
his  most  magnificent  shrine.  A  god  was  only  respected  to  any  account 
out  of  his  own  city  by  such  as  considered  him  their  special  personal 
protector. 

The  Babylonians  worshiped  their  deities  directly  through  their  im- 
ages, thus  giving  their  religion  the  same  idolatrous  character  bestowed 
upon  it  by  the  Assyrians.  Each  shrine  had  one  idol  at  least,  and  this 
idol  was  most  impiously  reverenced  by  the  ignorant,  who  identified  it 
in  some  way  with  the  god  whom  it  represented.  Some  of  them  appear 
te  have  believed  that  the  idol  ate  and  drank  the  offerings ;  while  others 


CHALDEE-ASSYRO-BABYLONIAN   COSMOGONY   AND   RELIGION. 


regarded  the  idol  as  a  mere  symbol  of  the  god,  who  was  supposed  to 
pay  an  occasional  visit  to  the  shrine  where  he  was  worshiped.  Those 
who  held  the  last  doctrine  nevertheless  entertained  gross  anthropo- 
morphic views,  as  they  regarded  the  god  as  coming  from  heaven  to 
earth  to  pass  the  night  with  the  chief  priestess  in  the  inner  shrine  of 
the  temple  of  Bel,  which  was  furnished  by  the  priests  with  a  magnifi- 
cent couch  and  a  golden  table. 

Some  of  the  idols  were  of  wood,  others  of  stone,  and  others  again 
of  metal,  either  solid  or  plated.  The  metals  used  were  gold,  silver, 
brass  or  bronze,  and  iron.  Sometimes  the  metal  was  laid  over  a  clay 
model.  In  some  instances  images  of  one  metal  were  overlaid  with 
plates  of  another,  as  in  the  case  of  one  of  the  great  images  of  Bel, 
originally  of  silver,  but  coated  with  gold  by  Nebuchadnezzar. 

The  Babylonian  worship  was  conducted  with  great  pomp  and  mag- 
nificence. A  body  of  priests  in  each  temple  conducted  the  ceremonies 
and  held  custody  of  the  treasures.  The  priests  were  married,  and 
lived  with  their  families  in  the  temple  itself  or  in  its  immediate  vicin- 
ity. They  were  supported  by  lands  belonging  to  the  temple  or  by  the 
offerings  of  the  faithful.  These  offerings  were  usually  animals, 
mostly  oxen  and  goats,  which  are  sacrificial  animals  represented  on 
the  cylinders.  The  priest  always  intervened  between  the  worshiper 
and  the  deities,  introducing  him  to  them  and  making  intercession  in 
his  behalf  with  upraised  hands. 

In  the  temple  of  Bel  at  Babylon,  and  perhaps  in  most  of  the  tem- 
ples throughout  Babylonia,  a  great  festival  was  celebrated  once  a  year. 
Many  victims  were  sacrificed  on  such  occasions,  and  on  the  great  altar 
in  the  precinct  of  Bel  at  Babylon  it  was  the  custom  to  burn  a  thou- 
sand talents'  weight  of  frankincense.  There  were  processions  accom- 
panied by  music  and  dancing.  The  priests  were  magnificently  cos- 
tumed. The  people  were  in  holiday  attire.  Banquets  were  held,  and 
the  city  was  given  up  to  merry-making.  The  king  entertained  his 
lords  in  his  palace.  There  was  dancing  and  revelry  in  private  dwell- 
ings. Wine  was  drunk  freely,  passion  was  aroused,  and  the  day  often 
ended  in  wild  orgies,  in  which  the  grossest  sensual  appetites  were  al- 
lowed free  indulgence  under  the  sanction  of  religion. 

In  the  temples  of  one  deity  such  excesses  occurred  daily.  Every 
Babylonian  woman  was  obliged  once  in  her  lifetime  to  visit  a  shrine 
of  Beltis,  and  stay  there  until  some  stranger  cast  money  into  her  lap 
and  took  her  along  with  him.  Herodotus  witnessed  this  scene,  which 
he  described  as  follows :  "  Many  women  of  the  wealthier  sort,  who 
are  too  proud  to  mix  with  the  others,  drive  in  covered  carriages  to  the 
precinct,  followed  by  a  goodly  train  of  attendants,  and  there  take 

their  station.     But  the  larger  number  seat  themselves  within  the  holy 
voi.  1.— 21 


Baby- 
lonian 

Worship, 
Priest- 
hood, 

Sacrifices 
and 

Offerings 


Annual 
Festival 
to  Bel  a) 
Babylon 


Account 
by  Herod 
otus  of 
the  Re- 
ligious 
Prostitu* 
tion  at 

the 

Shrine  o' 
Beltis,  01 
Mylitta, 

at 
Babylon. 


322 


CHALD^EA,    ASSYRIA,    BABYLONIA, 


Baby- 
Ionian 
Religious 
Notions 
of  Clean- 
liness. 


Baby- 
lonian 
Religious 
Symbol- 
ism. 


Various 

Cylinder 

Symbols 

of  the 

Gods. 


enclosure,  with  wreaths  of  string  about  their  heads — and  here  there  is 
always  a  great  crowd,  some  coming  and  others  going.  Lines  of  cord 
mark  out  paths  in  all  directions  among  the  women;  and  the  strangers 
pass  along  them  to  make  their  choice.  A  woman  who  has  once  taken 
her  seat  is  not  allowed  to  return  home  till  one  of  the  strangers  throws 
a  silver  coin  into  her  lap,  and  takes  her  with  him  beyond  the  holy 
ground.  When  he  throws  the  coin,  he  says  these  words :  '  The  god- 
dess Mylitta  (Beltis)  prosper  thee.'  The  silver  coin  may  be  of  any 
size ;  it  cannot  be  refused,  for  that  is  forbidden  by  the  law,  since  once 
thrown  it  is  sacred.  The  woman  goes  with  the  first  man  who  throws 
her  money,  and  rejects  no  one.  When  she  has  gone  with  him,  and 
so  satisfied  the  goddess,  she  returns  home;  and  from  that  time  forth 
no  gift,  however  great,  will  prevail  with  her.  Such  of  the  women  as 
are  tall  and  beautiful  are  soon  released ;  but  others,  who  are  ugly,  have 
to  stay  a  long  time  before  they  can  fulfill  the  law.  Some  have  even 
waited  three  or  four  years  in  the  precinct."  Thus  prostitution  was 
enjoined  as  a  religious  duty,  and  its  demoralizing  tendency  could  not 
well  be  exaggerated.  The  statement  of  Herodotus,  that  "  from  that 
time  forth  no  gift,  however  great,  will  prevail  with  a  Babylonian 
woman,"  is  not  repeated  by  Strabo,  and  is  bluntly  contradicted  by 
Quintus  Curtius. 

The  Babylonian  religious  system  had  notions  concerning  legal 
cleanliness  and  uncleanliness  similar  to  those  prevailing  among  the 
Jews.  They  believed  that  both  man  and  woman  were  made  impure 
by  the  consummation  of  the  marriage  rite,  and  also  by  every  subse- 
quent act  of  the  same  kind.  Every  vessel  touched  by  either  was  con- 
taminated with  this  impurity.  In  order  to  cleanse  themselves  of  this 
impurity,  the  pair  were  obliged  first  to  sit  down  before  a  censer  of 
burning  incense,  and  then  to  wash  themselves  thoroughly.  Only  by 
these  means  were  they  able  to  again  enter  a  condition  of  legal  cleanli- 
ness. A  like  impurity  affected  such  as  came  into  contact  with  a 
human  corpse. 

The  Babylonian  symbolism  in  religion  was  quite  extensive.  First 
they  assigned  to  each  god  a  special  mystic  number,  which  was  used 
as  his  emblem  and  might  also  stand  for  his  name  in  an  inscription. 
To  Anu,  Bel,  and  Hea,  or  Hoa — the  gods  of  the  First  Triad — were 
given  respectively  the  numbers  60,  50  and  40.  To  the  Moon-god, 
the  Sun-god  and  the  Air-god — the  gods  of  the  Second  Triad — were 
assigned  the  numbers  30,  20  and  10.  To  Beltis  was  attached  the 
number  15,  to  Nergal  12,  to  Bar,  or  Nin,  40,  as  to  Hea,  or  Hoa,  but 
this  last  is  uncertain.  Other  numerical  emblems  remain  undiscovered. 

There  were  likewise  pictorial  symbols  of  the  various  gods,  as  repre- 
sented on  the  cylinders,  many  of  these  forms  filling  every  vacant  space 


CHALDEE-ASSYRO-BABYLONIAN    COSMOGONY    AND    RELIGION. 


323 


where  room  could  be  found  for  them.  A  certain  number  may  be 
given  definitely  to  particular  divinities.  A  circle,  either  plain  or 
crossed,  symbolized  San,  or  Shamas,  the  Sun-god ;  a  six-rayed  or  eight- 
rayed  star  the  Sun-goddess,  Gula,  or  Anunit ;  a  double  or  triple  thun- 
derbolt the  Air-god,  Vul;  a  serpent  probably  Hea,  or  Hoa;  a  naked 
female  form  Ishtar,  or  Nana;  a  fish  Bar,  or  Nin.  There  is  a  multi- 
tude of  other  symbols,  whose  meaning  is  obscure;  such  as  a  double 
cross,  a  jar  or  bottle,  an  altar,  a  double  lozenge,  one  or  more  birds,  an 
animal  between  a  monkey  and  a  jerboa,  a  dog,  a  double  horn,  a  sacred 
tree,  an  ox,  a  bee,  a  spear-head.  The  inscribed  cylinders  inform  us 
that  these  emblems  do  not  refer  to  the  god  or  goddess  mentioned  in 
the  inscription  upon  them.  Each  seemingly  represents  a  distinct 
deity,  and  their  appearance  upon  a  cylinder  implies  the  devotion  of 
the  man  whose  seal  it  is  to  other  deities  besides  those  whose  particular 
servant  he  regards  himself.  In  some  instances  one  cylinder  has  eight 
or  ten  such  emblems. 

The  principal  Babylonian  temples  had  special  sacred  names  trans-    Principal 
mitted  from  the  old  Chaldaean  times,  and  belonged  to  the  Turanian      \on^ 
form  of  speech.     The  great  temple  of  Bel  at  Babylon  was  known  as   Temples. 
Bit-Saggath ;  that  of  the  same  god  at  Niffer  as  Kharris-Nipra ;  that 
of  Beltis  at  Erech  (now  Warka)  as  Bit- Ana;  that  of  the  Sun-god  at 
Sippara  as  Bit-Parra ;  that  of  Anunit  at  the  same  place  as  Bit-Ulmis ; 
that  of  Nebo  at  Borsippa  as  Bit-Tsida.     These  names  seldom  admit 
of  explanation. 


CHAPTER   III. 
PHCENICIA  AND  SYRIA. 


SECTION  I.— PH(ENICIA  AND  ITS  PEOPLE. 

PHCENICIA  was  the  name  anciently  applied  to  a  narrow  strip  of  ter-  Geog- 
ritory  bordered  on  the  east  by  the  mountains  of  Lebanon,  and  on  the  raPhy- 
west  by  the  Mediterranean  sea,  being  only  about  twenty  miles  wide 
from  east  to  west,  and  about  one  hundred  and  twenty  miles  long  from 
north  to  south.  Near  Sidon  the  Lebanon  mountains  are  only  two 
miles  from  the  sea,  and  at  Tyre  the  Phoenician  plain  is  only  five  miles 
wide.  The  entire  Phoenician  plain  was  exceedingly  fertile,  being 
abundantly  watered.  The  coast  abounded  with  good  harbors,  and  the 
cedars  of  Lebanon  furnished  material  in  great  abundance  for  ship- 
building. The  most  important  and  renowned  cities  upon  the  Phoeni-  Cities, 
cian  coast  were  Tyre  and  Sidon.  Tyre — "  the  daughter  of  Sidon  " — 
was  the  most  southern  city,  and  the  only  one  whose  political  history 
can  be  traced.  Sidon,  the  most  ancient  city  of  Phoenicia,  was  twenty 
miles  north  of  Tyre,  and  its  modern  name  is  Saide.  Berytus,  now 
Beyreut,  was  sixteen  miles  north  of  Sidon,  and  is  now  the  principal 
seaport  of  Syria.  North  of  Berytus  was  Byblus,  the  Gebal  of  the 
Bible,  inhabited  by  seamen  and  caulkers.  North  of  Byblus  was  Tripo- 
lis,  now  called  Tarabulus;  and  the  most  northern  of  all  Phoenician 
cities  was  Aradus,  the  Arvad  of  Genesis  and  Ezekiel. 

The  Phoenicians  were  a  branch  of  the  Semitic  race,  being  therefore      Origin 
a  kindred  people  with  the  Hebrews,  the  Arabs,  the  Syrians,  the  As-     p^^*. 
Syrians  and  the  later  Babylonians.     They  have  sometimes,  however,      cians. 
been  considered  as  the  Canaanites  of  the  coast  and  descendants  of 
Canaan,  a  son  of  Ham ;  in  which  case  they  would  belong  to  the  Hamitic 
nations,  but  their  Semitic  language  seems  to  identify  them  with  the 
other  nations  classed  as  descended  from  Shem.     The  Phoenicians  mi- 
grated from  the  plains  of  Chaldaea  soon  after  the  death  of  Nimrod. 
They  were  never  united  under  one  government,  being  divided  into  a 
number  of  petty  states,  or  kingdoms,  each  Phoenician  city  with  its 
adjacent   territory   constituting   a   small   independent   state   with   an 

325 


326 


PHOENICIA    AND    SYRIA. 


Phoenicia 
a  Prey  to 
Conquest. 


hereditary  sovereign  at  its  head,  the  political  power  being  shared  with 
the  priests  and  the  nobles.  In  certain  emergencies  the  Phoenician 
cities  would  unite  in  a  confederacy,  one  of  the  cities  being  usually 
recognized  as  the  leader  of  the  confederation.  This  supremacy  was 
only  exercised  in  war,  when  a  common  danger  threatened  the  existence 
of  the  separate  cities,  or  when  a  common  interest  demanded  unity. 
Each  city  was  at  all  times  allowed  to  manage  its  domestic  affairs  in  its 
own  way. 

Owing  to  its  geographical  situation  and  its  sources  of  wealth,  Phoe- 
nicia was  a  prey  to  all  the  great  conquerors  who  made  Syria  their 
battle-ground  in  ancient  times.  For  these  reasons  Phoenician  inde- 
pendence was  of  short  duration,  and  only  in  their  national  infancy 
were  this  renowned  commercial  people  free  from  the  yoke  of  foreign 
masters.  At  an  early  period  Phoenicia  was  forced  to  acknowledge  the 
supremacy  of  Egypt,  and  was  successively  reduced  to  subjection  un- 
der the  Assyrians,  the  Babylonians,  the  Medo-Persians  and  the  Graeco- 
Macedonians. 


Sidon. 


Origin 

of 
Tyre. 


Its  Early 
History. 


First 
King 


SECTION  II.— TYRE  AND  SIDON. 

SIDON — whose  name  is  the  same  as  the  oldest  son  of  Canaan,  a  son 
of  Ham — was  the  oldest  of  the  Phoenician  cities,  and  the  first  which 
became  wealthy  and  powerful.  It  early  engaged  in  commercial  en- 
terprises with  other  nations,  by  land  and  sea,  and  was  the  first  to  found 
colonies,  a  system  which  afterwards  became  a  distinctive  feature  of 
Phoenician  policy.  Tyre  was  the  first  of  Sidon's  colonies.  Sidon 
enjoyed  the  supremacy  over  the  other  Phoenician  cities  until  about 
B.  C.  1050,  when  the  city  was  taken  and  destroyed  by  the  Philistines 
from  the  South  of  Palestine.  The  inhabitants  found  refuge  in  Tyre, 
which  became  the  leading  city  of  Phoenicia,  and  so  remained  for  seven 
centuries. 

It  is  not  known  exactly  when  Tyre  was  founded.  The  city  orig- 
inally was  situated  on  the  mainland,  but  in  after  years  a  new  city  was 
erected  on  an  island  about  half  a  mile  from  the  shore.  This  insular 
city  soon  eclipsed  the  old  Tyre  in  wealth  and  splendor,  and  its  name 
became  a  byword  for  commercial  greatness. 

In  the  eleventh  century  before  Christ,  Tyre  rapidly  grew  to  be  the 
leading  city  and  kingdom  of  Phoenicia.  Under  the  government  of 
its  own  kings  it  advanced  very  fast  in  commercial  wealth  and  internal 
magnificence.  The  first  known  King  of  Tyre  was  ABIBAAL,  who  was 
partly  contemporary  with  King  David.  On  his  death,  about  B.  C. 
1025,  he  was  succeeded  on  the  Tyrian  throne  by  his  son  HIRAM,  who 
reigned  during  the  remainder  of  that  century.  Hiram  was  a  great 


m  Stereograph,  copyright  iqoo  by  Underwood  <&•  Underwood 

GREAT   RESERVOIR,    BUILT   BY   KING    HIRAM    AT   TYRE 


TYRE    AND   SIDON. 

friend  of  the  illustrious  Hebrew  monarchs,  David  and  Solomon,  with 
both  of  whom  he  entered  into  commercial  alliances.  He  furnished 
Solomon  with  a  great  part  of  the  materials  used  in  the  construction 
of  the  great  Jewish  Temple  at  Jerusalem,  and  with  the  workmen  by 
whom  that  grand  edifice  was  erected.  Hiram's  reign  of  thirty-four 
years  was  a  period  of  wonderful  prosperity  for  the  great  Phoenician 
cities,  Tyre's  supremacy  being  acknowledged  throughout  the  whole 
of  Phoenicia.  The  other  Phoenician  kings,  profiting  by  previous  ex- 
perience, entered  into  a  close  confederation  and  recognized  the  suzer- 
ainty of  the  King  of  Tyre,  "  the  true  and  only  monarch  of  the  na- 
tion," who,  in  consequence,  was  called  "  King  of  the  Sidonians."  This 
title  was  not  to  be  confounded  with  that  of  the  King  of  Sidon,  who 
was  the  local  sovereign  of  the  early  Phoenician  metropolis.  The  King 
of  Tyre  regulated  the  general  interests  of  Phoenicia,  its  commerce  and 
its  colonies,  concluded  treaties  with  other  nations,  and  directed  the 
fleets  and  armies  of  the  confederation.  He  was  aided  by  deputies 
from  the  other  Phoenician  cities. 

On  the  death  of  Hiram,  in  B.  C.  991,  his  son,  BAALEAZAR,  became  Hiram's 
King  of  Tyre.  He  died  after  a  reign  of  seven  years,  and  was  sue-  ^Uora 
ceeded  by  his  son  ABDASTARTUS  (or  Abdastoreth),  who,  after  reigning 
nine  years,  fell  a  victim  to  a  plot  of  assassination.  A  long  period  of 
civil  wars  then  distracted  Tyre,  in  consequence  of  the  claims  of  a 
number  of  pretenders  who  disputed  the  throne  in  quick  succession. 
Order  was  restored  about  B.  C.  941  when  ETH-BAAL  (or  Ithobalus), 
the  High-Priest  of  Astarte,  slew  the  last  pretender,  Phales,  and  seated 
himself  on  the  throne  of  Tyre  as  King  of  the  Sidonians.  He  gave 
his  daughter  Jezebel  in  marriage  to  Ahab,  King  of  Israel.  By  her 
force  of  character,  Jezebel  controlled  her  imbecile  husband  and  ren- 
dered Phoenician  influence  predominant  in  Israel  during  Ahab's  reign. 
Eth-baal  died  about  B.  C.  909,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  BADE- 
ZOR,  who  reigned  six  years,  dying  in  B.  C.  903,  when  his  son,  MATGEN, 
became  his  successor. 

Matgen  died  in  B.  C.  871,  after  a  reign  of  thirty-two  years,  leav-  Pyg- 
ing  a  son  named  Pygmalion  and  a  daughter  named  Elissar,  or  Elissa, 
but  better  known  as  Dido;  the  daughter  being  then  thirteen  and  the 
son  eleven  years  old.  Matgen  desired  that  his  children  should  reign 
jointly.  The  people  wanting  a  change  in  the  aristocratic  form  of 
government,  revolted  and  proclaimed  PYGMALION  king,  excluding  his 
sister,  who  married  Zicharbaal,  the  Sichaeus  of  Virgil.  Zicharbaal 
was  High-Priest  of  Melkarth,  next  in  rank  to  the  monarch  among 
the  Phoenicians,  and  the  head  of  the  aristocratic  party.  Shortly  after- 
ward he  was  assassinated  by  order  of  Pygmalion,  whereupon  Elissar 
organized  a  conspiracy  of  the  Phoenician  nobles  to  avenge  her  hus- 


328 


PHOENICIA    AND    SYRIA. 


Flight 

of 

Dido 

and 

Founding 

of 
Carthage. 


Sub- 
jection 

to 
Assyria. 


Second 

King 

Hiram. 


Assyrian 
Yoke. 


Unsuc- 
cessful 
Assyrian 
Siege 

of 
Tyre. 


band's  death  and  to  dethrone  her  brother,  but  she  was  foiled  in  her 
design  by  the  vigilance  of  the  popular  party.  Thereupon  the  con- 
spirators, several  thousand  in  number,  seized  a  number  of  ships  in 
the  harbor  of  Tyre  and  sailed  away  under  the  leadership  of  Elissar, 
who  was  thereafter  called  Dido,  "  the  fugitive."  They  landed  on  the 
northern  coast  of  Africa  and  founded  Carthage,  a  city  whose  great- 
ness, glory  and  prosperity  eventually  eclipsed  that  of  the  mother 
country. 

In  consequence  of  the  migration  of  the  aristocratic  party  from 
Tyre  the  Tyrian  king  was  thereafter  an  absolute  monarch.  During 
Pygmalion's  reign  the  Assyrians  under  Asshur-izir-pal  first  appeared 
on  the  Mediterranean  coast.  The  Phoenician  cities  submitted  to  the 
invaders  and  agreed  to  pay  tribute — a  condition  of  dependence  which 
lasted  almost  a  century.  Pygmalion's  reign  ended  in  B.  C.  824,  but 
we  have  no  record  of  any  Phoenician  king  until  the  middle  of  the  next 
century.  The  Phoenician  cities  were  governed  by  native  sovereigns 
tributary  to  Assyria,  but  this  vassalage  did  not  apparently  retard  the 
prosperity  of  Phoenicia,  or  weaken  its  maritime  power  and  its  commer- 
cial glory  and  greatness. 

The  Phoenicians  quietly  bore  the  yoke  of  Assyrian  supremacy  until 
the  middle  of  the  eighth  century  before  Christ,  when  they  became 
restive.  About  B.  C.  743,  another  HIRAM,  King  of  Tyre,  headed  a 
Phoenician  revolt  against  the  Assyrian  king,  Tiglath-Pileser  II.,  but 
the  Phoenicians  were  again  reduced  to  submission  and  tribute  when 
the  Assyrians  advanced  into  Palestine.  In  B.  C.  727,  Phoenicia,  un- 
der the  leadership  of  ELULJEUS,  revolted  against  Shalmaneser  IV., 
King  of  Assyria ;  whereupon  the  Assyrian  monarch  led  an  army  into 
the  country,  occupied  Old  Tyre,  on  the  mainland,  which  made  no  oppo- 
sition, but  the  Island  Tyre  withstood  a  siege.  Shalmaneser  was  un- 
able to  assail  the  insular  city  from  the  land  without  the  aid  of  a  fleet, 
and  was  obliged  to  content  himself  with  a  simple  blockade  of  the  city, 
the  most  important  feature  being  the  cutting  off  of  the  water  of  the 
island  city  which  had  been  supplied  by  means  of  aqueducts  from  the 
mainland.  The  besieged  are  said  to  have  drunk  rainwater  during  the 
five  years  that  they  held  out  against  the  besiegers.  While  the  siege 
was  in  progress  Shalmaneser  IV.  was  hurled  from  the  Assyrian  throne 
by  the  usurper  Sargon,  who  continued  the  siege.  The  other  Phoe- 
nician cities  had  in  the  meantime  submitted  to  the  Assyrians,  and  Sar- 
gon collected  a  fleet  of  sixty  ships  from  these  cities  and  attempted  to 
attack  insular  Tyre  from  the  sea,  but  the  Tyrians  sallied  out  with 
twelve  ships  and  defeated  and  destroyed  Sargon's  fleet.  Finally,  after 
the  siege  had  lasted  five  years,  the  Assyrians  relinquished  it  and  re- 
tired. 


TYRE   AND   SIDON. 


329 


Notwithstanding  its  successful  resistance  to  the  Assyrians,  Tyre 
emerged  from  the  siege  greatly  exhausted.  Its  supremacy  had  been 
shaken  off  by  the  other  Phoenician  cities,  which  had  become  tributary 
to  Sargon ;  and  finally,  in  B.  C.  708,  its  flourishing  colony  of  Cyprus 
submitted  to  the  Assyrians.  In  B.  C.  704,  just  after  Sennacherib 
had  ascended  the  Assyrian  throne,  Elulaeus  reestablished  Tyre's  su- 
premacy over  Phoenicia  and  proclaimed  the  independence  of  the  coun- 
try. In  B.  C.  700  Sennacherib  led  a  large  Assyrian  army  into  Phoe- 
nicia, whereupon  the  Phoenician  cities  forsook  Tyre  and  submitted  to 
the  Assyrian  king.  Elulaeus  retired  to  the  Island  of  Tyre,  relying 
upon  his  usual  good  fortune,  which,  however,  deserted  him  on  this 
occasion.  Tyre  was  taken  and  Elulaeus  was  obliged  to  flee  for  safety. 
Sennacherib  spared  the  city,  and  made  Tubal  (or  Ethbaal)  king,  as 
his  vassal  and  tributary. 

The  capture  of  Tyre  by  Sennacherib  put  an  end  to  the  supremacy 
which  that  city  had  for  some  time  exercised  so  oppressively  over  the 
other  Phoenician  cities.  Tyre  had  retained  most  of  the  profits  of 
Phoenician  commerce  for  herself,  and  the  other  cities  willingly  aided 
Sennacherib  in  reducing  her  to  submission.  All  the  cities  of  Phoenicia 
were  now  placed  on  an  equality  as  tributaries  of  Assyria.  Upon  the 
assassination  of  Sennacherib,  Sidon  rebelled  against  Assyria,  and  en- 
deavored to  acquire  the  supremacy  over  Phoenicia  formerly  exercised 
by  Tyre.  The  revolt  was  mercilessly  punished  by  Esar-haddon,  who 
destroyed  Sidon  about  B.  C.  681  and  reduced  its  inhabitants  to  slavery. 
At  Esar-haddon's  death  the  Phoenician  cities  cast  off  the  Assyrian 
yoke,  and  allied  themselves  with  Egypt,  the  enemy  of  Assyria.  But 
the  next  Assyrian  king,  Asshur-bani-pal,  after  reestablishing  the  As- 
syrian dominion  over  Egypt,  suppressed  the  Phoenician  revolt.  About 
B.  C.  630,  or  B.  C.  629,  Phoenicia  fell  a  prey  to  the  ferocious  Scythian 
invaders,  who  devastated  the  open  country,  but  did  not  take  any  of  the 
fortified  cities.  The  overthrow  of  the  Assyrian  Empire  in  B.  C.  625 
gave  the  Phoenicians  a  temporary  relief;  but  about  B.  C.  608  they 
submitted  to  the  yoke  of  Neko,  King  of  Egypt.  The  Egyptian  sway 
over  Phoenicia  was  ended  by  the  defeat  of  Neko  by  Nebuchadnezzar 
of  Babylon  at  Carchemish  in  B.  C.  605 ;  and  after  a  short  respite  from 
foreign  domination,  the  Phoenician  cities  found  a  new  master  in  the 
Babylonian  king.  In  B.  C.  598  Nebuchadnezzar  led  an  army  into 
Phoenicia,  quickly  reducing  the  country,  and  besieging  Tyre,  which 
resisted  him  for  thirteen  years,  at  the  end  of  which  he  took  the  city 
and  reduced  it  to  a  heap  of  ruins.  Most  of  the  inhabitants  fled  to 
their  fleet  and  sailed  to  Carthage,  carrying  with  them  their  wealth 
and  industry,  but  a  miserable  remnant  of  the  population  remained  in 
the  city  under  a  king  named  BAAL,  whom  the  conquering  Babylonian 


Assyrian 

Yoke 
Cast  Off. 


Assyrian 
Capture 

of 
Tyre. 

Phoenicia 
Tributary 

to 
Assyria. 


Sidon's 
Unsuc- 
cessful 
Revolt. 


Scythian 
Invasion 


Sub- 
jection 

to 

Egypt 

and 

Babylon 

Baby- 
lonian 
Siege 
and 
Capture 

of 
Tyre. 


330 


PHCENICIA    AND    SYRIA. 


Egyptian 
Defeat. 


Sub- 
jection 

to 
Persia. 


Alexan- 
der's 
Siege 
and 

Capture 
of  Tyre. 


Sub- 
jection 
to 

Macedon 

and 

Rome. 


monarch  had  set  up  as  his  vassal.  Some  years  afterward  Uaphris, 
King  of  Egypt,  attempted  to  wrest  Phoenicia  from  the  dominion  of 
Babylon;  but  the  Phoenicians  remained  loyal  to  Nebuchadnezzar,  and, 
aided  by  Cyprus,  defeated  the  Egyptian  fleet,  which  was  manned  by 
Greek  and  Carian  mercenaries.  Uaphris  was  checked  in  his  career 
by  this  reverse,  and  after  having  taken  and  sacked  Sidon  and  ravaged 
the  Phoenician  coast,  he  returned  to  Egypt  with  a  vast  amount  of 
spoils. 

Upon  the  subversion  of  the  Babylonian  Empire,  in  B.  C.  538,  Phoe- 
nicia passed  under  the  dominion  of  the  Medo-Persian  kings.  The 
greater  portion  of  the  naval  forces  in  the  expedition  of  Cambyses, 
King  of  Persia,  into  Egypt  consisted  mainly  of  Phoenician  ships  and 
seamen.  Phoenicia  remained  a  province  of  the  great  Medo-Persian 
Empire  for  two  centuries ;  and  in  B.  C.  332  Tyre  was  taken  after  a 
vigorous  siege  and  destroyed  by  Alexander  the  Great,  who  thus  put  an 
end  to  the  national  existence  of  Phoenicia,  and  inflicted  the  death-blow 
upon  the  Medo-Persian  Empire  in  the  memorable  battle  of  Arbela  the 
following  year.  Phoenicia  then  became  a  part  of  Alexander's  vast 
empire  and  was  absorbed  in  the  dominions  of  his  successors,  sometimes 
falling  under  the  dominion  of  the  Ptolemies  of  Egypt  and  sometimes 
under  the  Seleucidse  of  Syria.  In  the  first  century  before  Christ  it 
shared  the  fortunes  of  Syria  in  being  swallowed  up  by  the  overshadow- 
ing power  of  Rome.  It  has  ever  since  shared  the  fortunes  of  Syria 
and  Palestine,  and  has  been  under  the  Turkish  dominion  for  almost 
four  centuries. 


Manu- 
factures, 
Com- 
merce, 
Coloniza- 
tion. 

Colonies. 


Cyprus. 


SECTION  III.— PHOENICIAN  COMMERCE  AND  COLONIES. 

LARGELY  because  of  the  physical  condition  of  their  country  and 
other  circumstances,  the  Phoenicians  devoted  their  entire  attention  to 
manufactures,  commerce  and  colonization;  and  at  a  very  early  period 
they  became  the  greatest  manufacturing,  commercial,  colonizing  and 
maritime  people  of  antiquity. 

The  rapid  growth  of  their  commerce  placed  the  carrying  trade  of 
antiquity  almost  exclusively  in  the  hands  of  the  Phoenicians.  They 
extended  their  trade  by  establishing  colonies  and  trading  stations  in 
distant  lands,  and  many  of  these  became  important  cities  in  later  times. 
The  location  of  these  colonies  indicates  to  some  degree  the  extent  of 
Phoenician  commerce,  and  the  colonies  were  centers  from  which  ven- 
tures were  made  into  more  remote  regions.  The  Phoenician  colonies 
proceeded  from  east  to  west  along  the  Mediterranean  coasts,  occupy- 
ing the  chief  islands.  The  island  of  Cyprus — called  Kittim,  or  Chit- 


PHOENICIAN    COMMERCE    AND    COLONIES. 


331 


tim,  in  Scripture — was  a  province,  as  well  as  a  colony,  of  the  Tyrians ; 
and  vestiges  of  their  establishments  on  the  island  may  yet  be  seen. 
Their  principal  settlements  on  Cyprus  were  Paphos,  Amathus,  Tamisus 
and  Ammochosta.  In  the  island  of  Rhodes  were  lalyssus  and  Cama- 
rius.  In  the  ^Egean  sea  the  Phoenicians  had  stations  on  the  islands 
of  Thera  and  most  of  the  Cyclades,  and  also  on  Thasos.  In  the 
island  of  Sicily  were  the  flourishing  Phoenician  colonies  of  Lilyba^um 
and  Panormus  (Mahaneth).  Their  establishments  in  Sicily  and  Sar- 
dinia were  only  naval  stations  for  vessels  employed  in  the  trade  with 
Western  Europe,  especially  with  Spain,  "  the  Mexico  or  Peru  of  the 
ancient  world."  Spain — called  Tarshish  in  Scripture — was  the  coun- 
try from  which  the  Tyrians  had  the  most  lucrative  trade;  and  in  that 
country  they  established  on  the  Mediterranean  the  colonies  of  Carteia 
and  Malaca  (now  Malaga),  and  beyond  the  Pillars  of  Hercules  (now 
Straits  of  Gibraltar)  several  flourishing  colonies,  such  as  Tartessus, 
on  the  Boetis  (now  Guadalquivir),  and  Gades  (now  Cadiz),  on  an 
island  near  the  Spanish  coast;  the  latter  of  which  is  said  to  be  the 
oldest  town  in  Europe.  These  colonies  soon  became  independent 
states,  Tyre  preferring  a  close  alliance  with  them  to  retaining  a  polit- 
ical supremacy  over  them.  From  Gades  and  Tartessus  voyages  were 
made  to  the  west  coast  of  Africa  for  apes,  to  the  mines  of  Cornwall 
in  Britain  for  tin,  and  to  the  coasts  of  the  North  Sea  and  the  Baltic 
for  amber.  The  principal  Phoenician  colonies  on  the  Mediterranean 
coast  in  North  Africa,  in  the  modern  land  of  Tunis,  were  Leptis, 
Hadrumetum,  Utica  and  Carthage;  which  attained  a  degree  of  splen- 
dor not  reached  by  any  other  Phoenician  cities,  and  eventually  rivaled 
Tyre  itself  in  wealth  and  magnificence.  The  Phoenicians  formed  com- 
mercial stations  along  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor  and  the  shores  of  the 
Euxine,  or  Black  Sea,  before  the  Greeks ;  thus  establishing  intercourse 
with  Thrace,  Colchis  and  Scythia.  In  the  Persian  Gulf  the  Phoe- 
nicians had  trading  stations  on  the  islands  of  Tylos  and  Aradus  (per- 
haps Bahrein),  from  which  their  vessels  descended  the  Persian  Gulf 
and  traded  with  India  and  Ceylon,  bringing  diamonds  and  pearls  from 
those  Eastern  lands.  At  the  head  of  the  Red  Sea  they  had  a  station 
at  Elath,  or  Ezion-geber,  which  was  the  starting-point  for  voyages 
to  Ophir,  a  rich  country  in  the  distant  South  or  East,  believed  by 
some  to  have  been  in  the  South-west  of  Arabia,  or  Arabia  Felix  (now 
Yemen),  by  others  to  have  been  on  the  Eastern  coast  of  South  Africa, 
in  the  modern  Sofala,  and  by  others  still  to  have  been  on  the  peninsula 
of  Malacca,  in  the  Southern  part  of  Farther  India.  Ophir  was  famed 
for  its  gold,  which  the  Phoenicians  brought  from  there  in  large  quan- 
tities. 

1—24 


Colonies 

in 
Sicily. 

In  Spain. 


Carteia, 
Malaca. 

Gades, 

or 
Cadiz. 


Trade 

to 
Cornwall 

and 
Baltic 
Shores. 


Commerce 

with 
the  East 

and 
South. 


With 
Arabia 

Felix 

and 
Ophir. 


S32 


PHCENICIA    AND    SYRIA. 


Land 
Trade 
East, 
North 
and 
Sooth. 


Commer- 
cial 
Caravans. 


Trade 

with 

Egypt. 


With 
Judaea 

and 
Syria. 


Northern 
Land 
Trade. 


The  land-trade  of  the  Phoenicians  was  divided  into  three  great 
branches — the  Egyptian  and  Arabian ;  the  Babylonian  to  Central  Asia 
and  the  far  East;  and  the  Armenian  and  Scythian.  From  Arabia 
Felix  (Arabia  the  Happy) — now  called  Yemen — caravans  brought 
through  the  desert  such  articles  as  frankincense,  myrrh,  cassia,  gold 
and  precious  stones.  Before  the  Phoenicians  had  a  port  on  the  Red 
Sea  they  brought  by  way  of  Arabia  the  products  of  Southern  India 
and  Africa,  particularly  cinnamon,  ivory  and  ebony.  The  Hebrew 
prophet  Ezekiel  described  this  trade.  The  Arabian  trade  was  mainly 
carried  by  caravans.  The  Northern  Arabs,  especially  the  princes  of 
Kedar  and  the  Midianites,  were  great  traveling  merchants;  and  the 
Kingdom  of  Edom,  afterwards  Idumsea,  in  the  North  of  Arabia, 
reached  a  high  degree  of  commercial  prosperity.  On  the  sea-coast 
the  Edomites  were  in  possession  of  the  ports  of  Elath  and  Ezion-geber 
(now  Akaba),  at  the  head  of  the  Red  Sea;  in  the  interior  they  had 
the  metropolis  of  Petra,  whose  magnificent  remains  were  discovered  in 
the  present  century.  As  is  characteristic  of  the  immutable  civilization 
of  Asia,  the  commercial  caravans  of  antiquity  resembled  those  of  the 
present  day.  Merchants  traveled  in  bands  organized  like  an  army, 
conveying  their  merchandise  on  the  backs  of  camels,  "  the  ships  of 
the  desert."  They  were  escorted  by  armed  forces,  sometimes  fur- 
nished from  home,  but  more  frequently  consisting  of  some  plundering 
tribe,  hired  at  a  great  price,  to  secure  the  caravan  from  the  exactions 
and  attacks  of  other  like  marauding  tribes.  Most  of  the  Phoenician 
trade  with  Egypt  was  overland,  at  least  so  long  as  Thebes  was  the 
capital  and  metropolis  of  Egypt;  and  when  Memphis  rose  to  preemi- 
nence an  entire  quarter  of  the  city  was  assigned  to  the  Phoenician 
merchants,  and  the  trade  by  sea  to  the  Delta  became  important  and  so 
remained  for  centuries. 

The  first  branch  of  the  Phoenician  trade  in  the  East  was  with  Judaea 
and  Syria.  The  Phoenicians  depended  on  Palestine  for  their  grain, 
and  this  explains  the  cause  of  their  close  alliance  and  friendship  with 
the  Hebrew  nation  in  the  days  of  David  and  Solomon.  The  most 
important  branch  of  Eastern  trade  was  through  Babylon  with  Central 
Asia.  A  considerable  portion  of  the  route  lay  through  the  Syrian 
desert ;  and,  to  facilitate  the  passage  of  the  caravans,  two  of  the  most 
remarkable  cities  of  antiquity — Baalath  (afterwards  Baalbec,  or 
Heliopolis)  and  Tadmor  (afterwards  Palmyra)  were  founded  in  the 
Syrian  desert  by  King  Solomon,  who  desired  to  procure  for  his  sub- 
jects a  share  in  this  lucrative  traffic. 

The  Northern  land-trade  of  the  Phoenicians  is  thus  described  by  the 
Hebrew  prophet  Ezekiel :  "  Javan,  Tubal  and  Meshech,  they  were 
thy  merchants ;  they  traded  the  persons  of  men  and  vessels  of  brass 


PHCENICIAN    ARTS   AND    CIVILIZATION. 


333 


in  thy  markets.  They  of  the  house  of  Togarmah,  traded  in  thy  fairs 
with  horses  and  horsemen  and  mules." 

But  the  Mediterranean  sea  was  the  great  commercial  highway  of  the 
Phoenicians.  Spain  was  the  richest  country  of  the  ancient  world  in 
the  precious  metals.  The  Phoenician  colonies  reduced  the  natives  to 
slavery,  and  forced  them  to  work  in  the  mines.  Says  the  prophet 
Ezekiel :  "  Tarshish  was  thy  merchant  by  reason  of  the  multitude  of 
all  kind  of  riches;  with  silver,  iron,  tin  and  lead,  they  traded  in  thy 
fairs."  From  Spain  the  Phoenicians  entered  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and 
proceeded  to  the  British  Isles,  where  they  obtained  tin  from  the  mines 
of  Cornwall ;  and  probably  from  the  coasts  of  the  Baltic  they  pro- 
cured amber,  which  was  considered  more  precious  than  gold  in  ancient 
times.  From  their  trading  stations  on  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Persian 
Gulf,  the  Phoenicians  traded  with  the  coasts  of  India  and  the  island 
of  Ceylon,  and  with  Africa.  During  the  reign  of  Neko,  King  of 
Egypt,  a  Phoenician  fleet,  in  a  three  years'  voyage,  discovered  the  pass- 
age around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  returning  home  by  way  of  the 
Atlantic  and  the  Mediterranean,  as  we  have  seen  in  the  history  of 
Egypt. 

Concerning  the  ancient  Phoenicians,  a  certain  writer  says :  "  Though 
their  voyages  did  not  equal  in  daring  those  of  modern  times,  yet,  when 
we  consider  that  they  were  ignorant  of  the  mariner's  compass,  and  of 
the  art  of  taking  accurate  astronomical  observations,  it  is  wonderful 
to  reflect  on  the  commercial  enterprise  of  a  people  whose  ships  were  to 
be  seen  in  the  harbors  of  Britain  and  Ceylon." 


Mediter- 
ranean 
Trade. 


Tarshish. 


Atlantic 
Trade. 


Oriental 
Trade. 


Phoe- 
nician 
Enter- 
prise. 


SECTION  IV.— PHCENICIAN  ARTS  AND  CIVILIZATION. 

BESIDES  their  carrying  trade  the  Phoenicians  derived  great  wealth 
from  their  manufactures.  The  textile  fabrics  of  the  Sidonians,  and 
the  purple  cloths  of  the  Tyrians,  were  celebrated  from  the  most  re- 
mote antiquity.  The  "  Tyrian  purple,"  the  chief  product  of  the 
Phoenicians,  was  a  famous  dye,  obtained  in  minute  drops  from  two 
shell-fish,  the  buccinum  and  the  murex.  This  purple  was  of  a  dark 
red-violet,  of  various  shades,  according  to  the  species  of  mussel  em- 
ployed. Cotton,  linen  and  silk  fabrics  were  dyed  with  this  hue,  but 
the  most  beautiful  effects  were  obtained  from  woolen  goods.  The  dye 
being  very  costly,  it  was  used  only  for  stuffs  of  the  best  quality.  The 
manufacture  and  use  of  this  dye  prevailed  in  all  the  Phoenician  cities. 
Homer  represents  his  heroes  as  clad  in  Sidonian  robes  dyed  with  Tyrian 
purple. 

Vegetable  dyes  of  exceeding  beauty  and  variety  were  also  in  use, 
the  dyeing  being  always  performed  in  the  raw  materials;  and  the  art 


Textile 
Fabrics. 

Tyrian 
Purple. 


Vegetable 
Dyes. 


334 


PHOENICIA    AND    SYRIA. 


Glass 
Blowing. 


Pottery. 


Jewelry- 


Ivory 
Carvings. 

Agricul- 
ture. 

Wines, 

Silk, 

Fruits. 


Alphabet. 


Semitic 
Origin. 


of  producing  shot  colors  by  using  threads  of  various  tints  was  only 
understood  by  the  Phoenicians.  The  Phoenicians  claimed  to  be  the 
inventors  of  glass-blowing;  and,  though  the  Egyptians  have  as  good 
a  claim  to  the  discovery,  the  Phoenicians  were  the  first  to  attain  the 
highest  skill  in  the  art.  Sidon  and  Sarepta  were  the  chief  seats  of 
the  glass  manufacture.  The  sand  used  was  procured  from  the  banks 
of  the  little  river  Belus,  near  the  promontory  of  Carmel.  Numerous 
specimens  of  Phoenician  glassware  yet  remain,  and  bear  witness  to 
the  skillful  workmanship  of  this  renowned  ancient  people.  The  Phoe- 
nicians were  likewise  skilled  in  pottery ;  and  the  Greeks  acquired  from 
them  the  art  of  making  painted  vases,  which  they  afterwards  carried 
to  remarkable  perfection.  They  largely  exported  pottery  in  exchange 
for  tin  in  their  voyages  to  Cornwall  and  the  Scilly  Isles.  The  Phoe- 
nicians likewise  achieved  great  skill  in  bronze-work  and  in  jewelry. 
The  specimens  of  their  jewelry  found  by  modern  explorers  testify  to 
the  wonderful  skill  and  taste  exhibited  by  these  ancient  people  in  this 
branch  of  industry.  They  were  also  celebrated  for  their  beautiful 
carvings  in  ivory. 

The  Phoenicians  also  displayed  some  skill  in  agriculture.  Excel- 
lent wines  were  produced  in  the  vicinity  of  Tyre,  Berytus  and  Gebal, 
and  also  in  the  Lebanon  mountain  region.  Silk,  then  as  at  present, 
was  an  important  product.  The  fruits  of  this  region  were  famed  for 
their  excellence  and  abundance. 

It  was  once  thought  that  the  Phoenicians  invented  letters,  but  recent 
investigations  and  discoveries  throw  considerable  doubt  upon  this  claim. 
But,  while  other  ancient  Oriental  nations  had  ideographic  systems  of 
writing — as,  for  example,  the  Egyptians — the  Phoenicians  had  an  al- 
phabet of  twenty-two  letters  apparently  selected  from  the  characters 
of  the  Egyptian  hieratic  writing.  Each  letter  of  this  alphabet  in- 
variably represented  one  articulation,  and  the  Phoenicians  seem  to  have 
been  the  first  people  to  use  such  a  system.  It  is  believed  that  the 
Phoenician  alphabet  was  invented  about  the  time  of  Avaris,  one  of  the 
Shepherd  Kings  of  Egypt,  several  centuries  prior  to  the  exodus  of  the 
Israelites  from  that  country.  It  is  the  first  real  alphabet  which  has 
been  thus  far  discovered;  and  whether  the  Phoenicians  invented  letters 
or  not,  they  were  the  first  people  to  use  them  in  their  proper  manner, 
as  a  system  different  from  hieroglyphic  or  ideographic  writing.  The 
Phoenicians  established  their  alphabet  wherever  they  carried  their  com- 
mercial enterprises,  and  thus  they  instructed  other  nations  in  the  use 
of  letters.  As  M.  Renan  asserts,  the  alphabet  was  a  Phoenician  export. 

According  to  the  evidence  furnished  us  by  the  Hebrew  Scriptures, 
the  Phoenicians  were  descended  from  Canaan,  a  son  of  Ham,  thus  im- 
plying that  they  were  a  Hamitic  people;  but  they  spoke  a  purely 


PHOENICIAN    ARTS   AND   CIVILIZATION. 


335 


Semitic  language — a  language  akin  to  that  of  the  Hebrews,  the  Syr- 
ians, the  Assyrians  and  the  Semitic  Babylonians.  Says  a  certain 
writer :  "  It  is  certain  that  the  Phoenician  idiom  differed  but  slightly, 
and  in  no  important  point,  from  that  of  the  Hebrews.  The  identity 
of  grammatical  forms  and  of  the  vocabulary  are  so  complete  between 
the  Hebrew  and  the  Phoenician  that  they  cannot  be  considered  as  two 
distinct  languages,  but  merely  as  two  slightly  differing  dialects  of 
the  same  language." 

The  Phoenicians  were  a  literary  people  at  a  very  early  day.  Their 
written  law  embraced  the  principles  of  their  religion  and  their  social 
and  political  systems.  They  had  books  treating  on  religion,  agricul- 
ture and  the  practical  arts;  and  the  different  Phoenician  cities  had 
regular  archives  or  records  in  writing,  going  back  to  very  early  times, 
and  preserved  with  wonderful  care.  They  made  remarkable  progress 
in  the  sciences.  The  Sidonian  architects  were  regarded  as  the  best 
in  Syria.  In  Phoenicia,  particularly  in  Sidon,  did  astronomy,  arith- 
metic, geometry,  navigation  and  philosophy  flourish;  and  the  Sido- 
nians  endeavored  to  atone  for  the  loss  of  their  political  and  commercial 
supremacy  among  the  Phoenician  cities  by  their  intellectual  glory. 
The  eminent  characters  of  ancient  Phoenicia  were  the  historian,  San- 
choniathon,  of  Tyre,  and  the  philosopher,  Moschus,  of  Sidon;  both 
of  whom  are  said  to  have  lived  in  the  twelfth  century  before  Christ. 

The  character  of  Phoenician  architecture  is  shown  by  a  few  remain- 
ing buildings.  Its  prominent  characteristic,  in  the  words  of  M. 
Renan,  "  is  its  massive  and  imposing  strength — a  want,  indeed,  of 
finish  in  details,  but  a  general  effect  of  power  and  grandeur.  In  short 
it  is  a  monolithic  art."  The  Phoenician  buildings  were  constructed  of 
enormous  stones,  similar  to  those  yet  to  be  seen  in  the  lower  walls  of 
the  Temple  at  Jerusalem,  which  were  built  by  Phoenician  architects 
and  masons,  and  like  those  still  to  be  seen  in  the  sea-wall  of  the  ruins 
of  Tyre.  The  Phoenician  tombs  were  original  in  design  and  grand  in 
construction.  All  their  edifices  seemed  intended  to  last;  and  so  dur- 
able have  they  been  that,  notwithstanding  the  hard  fate  to  which  they 
have  been  subjected,  many  monuments  of  the  days  of  Phoenician  glory 
remain  to  give  us  some  light  on  the  antiquities  of  this  famous  race  of 
merchants  and  colonizers. 

Phoenician  statuary  seems  to  be  a  mingling  of  the  styles  of  Egypt 
and  Assyria,  the  general  form  being  Egyptian,  while  the  execution  is 
Assyrian.  There  were  few  large  statues,  but  many  small  statuettes, 
some  of  which  display  remarkable  artistic  skill,  and  are  made  of  stone, 
while  others  are  constructed  of  baked  clay  and  bronze,  exhibiting 
neither  taste  in  design  nor  elegance  in  execution.  Both  kinds  of 
statuettes  were  designed  as  idols,  of  which  one  or  more  were  in  every 


Litera- 
ture. 


Science. 


Sanchon- 
iathon. 

Moschus. 


Architec- 
ture. 


Sculp- 
ture. 


336 


PHCENICIA    AND    SYRIA. 


Dress. 


Phoenician  dwelling.  The  first  class  were  those  belonging  to  the 
wealthy ;  while  the  rougher  and  coarser  sort  belonged  to  the  poor. 

The  ancient  Egyptian  paintings  represent  the  Phoenicians  as  hav- 
Painting.  ing  dark,  florid  complexions,  and  well-formed,  regular  features,  ap- 
proaching the  European  cast.  They  are  also  represented  with  blue 
eyes  and  flaxen  hair.  The  hair,  when  dressed  for  ornament,  was  pow- 
dered white  and  covered  with  a  network  of  blue  beads,  or  a  close  cap 
wound  around  by  a  fillet  of  scarlet  leather,  with  two  long  ends  hang- 
ing down  behind,  in  the  Egyptian  style. 

The  Phoenician  dress  was  usually  a  short  cloak  or  cape  thrown  over 
the  shoulders  and  extending  to  the  elbows,  and  fastened  at  the  waist 
by  a  golden  girdle,  which,  in  some  cases,  encircled  the  body  many 
times,  and  was  tied  in  front  with  a  large  bow-knot.  The  inner  gar- 
ment was  of  fine  linen,  confined  to  the  waist  and  extending  almost 
down  to  the  feet.  The  Phoenicians  also  wore  woolen  mantles  and 
tunics,  of  fine  texture  and  edged  with  gold  lace. 

The  Egyptian  paintings  represent  the  Sidonians  as  allies  of  the 
Pharaohs  in  their  wars  with  the  Canaanites.  The  statesmen  and  mer- 
chants are  represented  as  having  long  hair  and  beards,  and  with  a 
fillet  around  the  head.  The  soldiers  are  depicted  with  short  hair  and 
beard.  The  arms  and  accouterments  of  the  Sidonians  were  very  ele- 
gant. The  helmet  was  of  silver,  with  a  peculiar  ornament  at  the  crest, 
consisting  of  a  disk  and  two  horns  of  a  heifer,  or  of  a  crescent.  The 
breast-plate  was  also  of  silver,  quilted  upon  a  white  linen  garment, 
which  was  laced  in  front  and  extended  to  the  armpits,  being  held  by 
shoulder-straps.  The  shield  was  large  and  round,  and  made  of  iron, 
rimmed  and  studded  with  gold.  The  sword  was  two-edged  and  made 
of  bronze.  The  spear  was  remarkably  long. 

It  is  believed  that  the  Hebrews  obtained  their  ornaments  of  dress 
and  their  articles  of  domestic  luxury  from  their  Phoenician  neighbors. 
Says  the  Jewish  prophet  Isaiah :  "  In  that  day  the  Lord  will  take 
away  the  bravery  of  their  tinkling  ornaments  about  their  feet,  and 
their  cauls,  and  their  round  tires  like  the  moon ;  the  chains,  the  brace- 
lets, and  the  mufflers ;  the  bonnets,  and  the  ornaments  of  the  legs,  and 
the  head-bands,  and  the  tablets,  and  the  ear-rings ;  the  rings,  and  nose- 
j  ewels ;  the  changeable  suits  of  apparel,  and  the  mantles,  and  the  wim- 
ples, and  the  crisping-pins ;  the  glasses,  and  the  fine  linen,  and  the 
hoods,  and  the  veils." 


Military 

Dress, 

Arms,  etc 


Isaiah's 
Prophecy 


Poly- 
theism. 


SECTION  V.— PHOENICIAN  RELIGION. 

THE  Phoenician  religion  was  a  gross  polytheism,  and  is  but  imper- 
fectly understood,  as  there  is  no  sacred  book,  like  the  Old  Testament 


PHOENICIAN    RELIGION.  $37 

of  the  Hebrews,  or  like  the  Zend-Avesta  of  the  Medes  and  Persians,  or 
the  Vedas  of  the  Sanskritic  Hindoos,  or  the  Ritual  of  the  Dead  of  the 
Egyptions,  to  spread  before  us  a  view  of  the  system.  Neither  is  there 
any  extensive  range  of  sculptures  or  paintings  to  give  us  an  idea  of 
the  outward  aspect  of  the  worship,  as  in  Egypt,  Assyria  and  Greece. 
Neither  has  any  ancient  writer  given  us  any  account  of  this  religion 
excepting  Philo  Byblius,  a  Greek  writer  of  the  first  or  second  century 
after  Christ,  and  who  was  a  native  of  Byblus.  This  author  is  quoted 
by  Eusebius  in  his  "  Evangelical  Preparation  "  several  centuries  later. 
But  the  work  of  Philo  Byblius  deals  exclusively  with  Phoenician  cos- 
mogony and  mythology,  and  thus  gives  us  no  light  upon  the  real 
character  of  the  religion.  We  are  obliged  to  rely  mainly  upon  the 
notices  of  the  Phoenician  religion  by  the  writers  of  portions  of  the 
Old  Testament,  upon  incidental  allusions  by  classical  authors,  upon 
inscriptions,  upon  the  etymology  of  names,  and  upon  occasional  repre- 
sentations accompanying  inscriptions  upon  stones  or  coins.  These 
are,  however,  so  disconnected  and  vague  as  to  give  us  but  scanty  and 
unsatisfactory  knowledge  of  the  inner  nature  of  the  Phoenician  re- 
ligious system. 

The  Phoenician  religion  evidently  was  derived  from  the  same  source     Origin, 
from  which  the  religions  of  Chaldaea  and  Assyria  took  their  origin.     It 
was  based  on  the  conception  of  one  Supreme  and  Universal  Divine 
IjBeing,  "  whose  person  was  hardly  to  be  distinguished  from  the  mate- 
rial world,  which  had  emanated  from  his  substance  without  any  distinct 
act  of  creation."     The  Universal  Supreme  Being  was  usually  termed 
Baal,  meaning  "  the  Lord."     He  represented  the  sun,  which  was  re-        Baal. 
garded  as  the  great  agent  of  creative  power.     He  was  divided  into 
a  number  of  secondary  divinities,  named  Baalim,  who  emanated  from 
his  substance  and  were  simply  personifications  of  his  various  attributes. 
"  The  supreme  god,  considered  as  the  progenitor  of  different  beings, 
became  Baal-Thammuz,  called  also  Adon,  '  the  Lord,'  whence  the  Gre-       other 
cian  Adonis.     As  a  preserver,  he  was  Baal-Chon ;  as  a  destroyer,  Baal-      Gods. 
Moloch ;  as  presiding  over  the  decomposition  of  those  destroyed  beings     Moloch, 
whence  new  life  was  again  to  spring,  Baal-Zebub."     Other  gods  were 
El,  Elium,  Sadyk,  Adonis,  Malkarth,  Dagon,  Eshmun,  Shamas  and 
Kabiri. 

Each  divinity  had  his  female  principle,  or  wife.  Each  secondary  Astarte. 
Baal  had  a  corresponding  Baalath,  representing  the  same  god  under 
a  different  aspect.  The  female  principle  of  the  great  god  Baal  at 
Sidon  was  Ashtoreth,  or  Astarte,  the  representative  of  the  moon,  there- 
fore corresponding  to  the  Grecian  goddess  Artemis,  or  Diana.  The 
planets  were  worshiped  under  the  generic  title  of  Cabirim,  the  "  power- 
ful ones."  Fire  was  likewise  reverenced,  and  the  sun  and  star  deities 
VOL.  l.— 33 


338 


PHOENICIA   AND   SYRIA. 


Cruel 
Sacrifices. 


Fire  Gods,  were  emphatically  "  fire  gods."  Movers  describes  the  Phoenician  re- 
ligion as  "  an  apotheosis  of  the  forces  and  laws  of  nature ;  an  adora- 
tion of  the  objects  in  which  these  forces  were  seen,  and  where  they 
appeared  most  active." 

The  most  cruel  and  licentious  ceremonies  accompanied  the  worship 
of  the  Phoenician  deities.  Children  were  burnt  alive  to  appease  the 
wrath  of  Baal-Moloch ;  a  custom  carried  to  great  excess  in  Carthage. 
There  was  a  systematic  offering  of  human  victims  as  expiatory  sacri- 
fices to  El  and  other  gods.  The  reason  for  this  shocking  superstitious 
custom  is  to  be  found  in  the  words  addressed  by  Balak  to  Balaam,  as 
follows :  "  Wherewith  shall  I  come  before  the  Lord,  and  bow  myself 
before  the  high  God?  Shall  I  come  before  Him  with  burnt  offerings, 
with  calves  of  a  year  old?  Will  the  Lord  be  pleased  with  thousands 
of  rams,  or  with  ten  thousands  of  rivers  of  oil?  Shall  I  give  my  first- 
born for  my  transgression,  the  fruit  of  my  body  for  the  sin  of  my 
soul  ?  "  Philo  Byblius  says :  "  It  was  customary  among  the  ancients, 
in  times  of  great  calamity  and  danger,  that  the  rulers  of  the  city  or 
nation  should  offer  up  the  best  beloved  of  their  children,  as  an  ex- 
piatory sacrifice  to  the  avenging  deities ;  and  these  victims  were  slaugh- 
tered mystically."  The  Phoenicians  were  instructed  that  at  one  time 
the  god  El  himself,  under  the  pressure  of  extreme  peril,  had  taken  his 
only  son,  clad  him  in  kingly  attire,  set  him  as  a  victim  upon  an  altar, 
and  killed  him  with  his  own  hand.  Thereafter  it  was  the  duty  of 
rulers  to  follow  this  divine  example,  and  private  persons,  when  sur- 
rounded by  difficulties,  might  offer  up  their  children  to  appease  the 
divine  anger.  Porphyry  says  that  "  the  Phoenician  history  was  full 
of  instances  in  which  that  people,  when  suffering  under  great  calamity 
from  war,  or  pestilence,  or  drought,  chose  by  public  vote  one  of  those 
most  dear  to  them,  and  sacrificed  him  to  Saturn." 

The  worship  of  Ashtoreth  in  Phoenicia  and  Syria  was  accompanied 
with  licentious  rites.  The  worship  of  the  great  Nature-goddess 
"  tended  to  encourage  dissoluteness  in  the  relations  between  the  sexes, 
and  even  to  sanctify  impurities  of  the  most  abominable  description." 
"  This  religion  silenced  all  the  best  feelings  of  human  nature,  de- 
graded men's  minds  by  a  superstition  alternately  cruel  and  profligate, 
and  we  may  seek  in  vain  for  any  influence  for  good  it  could  have 
exercised  on  the  nation."  The  religion  well  illustrated  the  moral 
character  of  the  Phoenicians,  who  were  generally  insubordinate,  but 
also  servile,  gloomy  and  cruel,  corrupt  and  fierce,  covetous  and  selfish, 
vindictive  and  treacherous.  Being  traders  in  everything  they  were 
devoid  of  every  kindly  feeling  and  lofty  impulse. 

The  Phoenicians  did  not  worship  images  of  their  deities,  and  were 
therefore  not  idolaters,  in  the  usual  acceptation  of  the  term.  In  the 


Licentious 
Rites. 


No 
Idolatry. 


ANCIENT   SYRIA-DAMASCUS.  339 

temple  of  Melkarth  at  Gades  there  was  no  material  emblem  of  the  god 
whatever,  excepting  a  constantly-burning  fire.  In  other  places  con- 
ical stones,  called  bcetyli,  were  dedicated  to  the  different  deities,  and 
were  honored  with  a  limited  adoration,  being  considered  as  possessing 
a  certain  mystic  virtue.  These  stones  were  sometimes  replaced  by 
pillars,  which  were  erected  in  front  of  the  temples  and  had  sacrifices 
offered  to  them.  The  pillars  were  mostly  of  wood,  though  sometimes 
of  stone  or  metal,  and  were  called  asherahs,  "  uprights,"  by  the  Jews. 
On  festive  occasions  they  were  adorned  with  boughs  of  trees,  flowers 
and  ribbons,  and  constituted  the  chief  object  of  a  worship  of  a  sensual 
and  debasing  nature.  An  emblem  in  the  Assyrian  sculptures  is  re- 
garded as  conveying  a  correct  idea  of  the  usual  appearance  of  these 
asherahs  at  such  times. 

Phoenician  worship  was   conducted   publicly,   and   included   praise,    Worship, 
prayer  and  sacrifice.     Animals  were  generally  sacrificed,  though,  as   Sacrifices. 
we  have  observed,  there  were  frequently  human  sacrifices.     The  vic- 
tims were  usually  consumed  entirely  upon  the  altars.     Libations  of  Libations. 
wine  were  lavishly  poured  out  in  honor  of  the  principal  deities,  and 
incense  was  burnt  in  extravagant  profusion.     Sometimes  an  endeavor 
was  made  to  influence  the  deity  by  vociferous  and  prolonged  cries,  and 
even   by    self-inflicted   wounds    and    mutilation.     Festivals    were    fre- 
quently held,  particularly  one  at  the  vernal  equinox,  on  which  occa- 
sion sacrifices  on  a  large  scale  were  made,  and  vast  multitudes  of  people 
assembled  at  the  leading  temples. 

Says  Rawlinson :   "  Altogether  the  religion  of  the  Phoenicians,  while     Rawlin- 
possessing  some  redeeming  points,  as  the  absence  of  images  and  deep      view, 
sense  of  sin  which  led  them  to  sacrifice  what  was  nearest  and  dearest 
to  them  to  appease  the  divine  anger,  must  be  regarded  as  one  of  the 
lowest  and  most  debasing  of  the  forms  of  belief  and  worship  prevalent 
in  the  ancient  world,  combining  as  it  did  impurity  with  cruelty,  the 
sanction  of  licentiousness  with  the  requirement  of  bloody  rites,  revolt- 
ing to  the  conscience,  and  destructive  of  any  right  apprehension  of 
the  true  idea  of  God." 

SECTION  VI.— ANCIENT   SYRIA— DAMASCUS. 

SYRIA — at  present   a  province   of  the  Turkish  Empire — now  em-     Ancient 
braces  ancient  Syria,  Palestine  and  Phoenicia ;  thus  having  an  area  of     Ma?d 
about  seventy  thousand  square  miles  and  a  population  of  two  millions.      Syria. 
It  is  located  between  the  Arabian  desert  on  the  east  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean sea  on  the  west.     The  Greeks  regarded  Syria  as   including 
Palestine  and  Phoenicia,  but  the  Jews  always  considered  these  three 
countries  as  distinct  from  each  other.     Aram  was  the  Jewish  name 


840 


Moun- 
tains and 
Rivers. 


Products 

and 
Animals. 


Syrian 
Cities. 


Ara- 
maeans. 


PHOENICIA   AND    SYRIA. 

for  Syria.  Ancient  Syria  proper  was  bounded  on  the  west  by  the 
Mediterranean,  on  the  north  by  Mount  Amanus,  on  the  east  by  the 
Euphrates  and  Arabia,  and  on  the  south  by  Arabia.  Its  principal 
geographical  divisions  in  the  time  of  the  Romans  were  Syria  proper; 
Ccele-Syria,  or  Hollo w- Sy ria ;  and  Commagene,  in  the  North. 

The  chief  mountains  of  Syria  were  Amanus,  now  'Al  Lucan ;  Casius, 
now  Cas ;  Libanus  and  Anti-Libanus,  the  Mount  Lebanon  of  Scripture, 
whose  summit  is  said  to  be  perpetually  capped  with  snow.  The  prin- 
cipal rivers  of  Syria  are  the  Euphrates,  the  Orontes  and  the  Leontes. 
The  small  river  called  Eleutherus  was  anciently  said  to  be  haunted  by 
a  dragon,  whose  immense  jaws  could  receive  a  mounted  horseman. 
The  Sabbatum  was  represented  as  ceasing  to  flow  on  the  Sabbath. 
The  Adonis,  tinged  with  reddish  sand  in  the  rainy  season,  was  believed 
to  flow  with  blood  on  the  anniversary  of  the  death  of  Adonis,  who  was 
said  to  have  been  killed  on  its  banks  by  a  wild  boar.  The  palm,  the 
plane-tree  and  the  cypress  are  among  the  forest  trees  of  Syria. 
Grapes  are  produced  in  abundance,  as  are  also  the  different  kinds  of 
grain,  and  millet.  The  climate  is  delightful.  The  animals  of  Syria 
are  those  usually  found  in  South-western  Asia.  The  Syrian  goat  is 
remarkable  for  its  long  hair  and  its  pendulous  ears,  the  hair  having 
been  a  valued  article  of  commerce  for  many  centuries.  The  wolf,  the 
jackal  and  the  fox  are  seen  in  the  mountains. 

Damascus — the  chief  city  of  ancient,  as  of  modern,  Syria — is  be- 
lieved by  its  people  to  be  the  original  seat  of  paradise.  Antioch,  the 
Greek  capital  of  Syria,  was  celebrated  for  its  beauty  and  magnificence. 
In  the  famous  grove  of  Daphne,  near  Antioch,  Venus  was  worshiped 
with  licentious  ceremonies.  Hieropolis  was  renowned  for  its  temple 
of  Venus,  which  was  so  rich  that  the  Roman  general  Crassus  was  en- 
gaged for  several  days  in  weighing  the  spoils  when  he  captured  the 
city.  Emessa  had  a  temple  to  the  sun.  Other  famous  cities  of  ancient 
Syria  were  Tadmor,  in  the  desert,  later  known  as  Palmyra,  and  Baal- 
bee,  the  Greek  Heliopolis,  or  City  of  the  Sun. 

The  earliest  inhabitants  are  believed  to  have  been  the  Aramites,  or 
Aramaeans,  the  descendants  of  Aram,  Shem's  youngest  son.  Some  of 
the  posterity  of  Hamath,  a  son  of  Canaan,  is  also  said  to  have  dwelt 
there  in  primitive  times.  The  Hebrew  Scriptures  represent  primeval 
Syria  as  divided  into  a  number  of  small  kingdoms,  among  which  were 
Damascus,  Hamath,  Zobah  and  Geshur.  Syria  is  believed  to  be  one 
of  the  earliest  inhabited  regions  of  the  globe,  and  the  modern  Syrians 
have  traditions  representing  their  country  as  the  oldest  in  the  world. 

The  Syrians  were  at  first  governed  by  numerous  petty  chiefs,  called 
kings,  a  title  which  the  ancient  writers  applied  to  every  ruler  or  leader, 
or  chief,  of  a  community. 


ANCIENT    SYRIA-DAMASCUS. 


341 


Previous  to  its  organization  into  a  satrapy  of  the  Medo-Persian  Em- 
pire, Syria  had  never  been  united  under  one  government.  During  the 
period  of  Assyrian  supremacy  the  country  was  divided  into  no  less 
than  five  leading  states,  some  of  which  were  mere  loose  confederacies. 
The  five  states  were  the  Northern  Hittites,  whose  capital  was  Car- 
chemish,  on  the  Euphrates ;  the  Patena,  on  the  Lower  Orontes,  whose 
capital  was  Kinalua;  the  Hamathites,  on  ,the  Upper  Orontes,  whose 
capital  was  Hamath  (now  Hamah) ;  the  Southern  Hittites,  in  the 
region  south  of  Hamath ;  and  the  Syrians  of  Damascus,  whose  capital 
was  Damascus. 

The  history  of  Syria,  like  that  of  Asia  Minor,  has  little  political 
unity.  Since  its  petty  ancient  states  have  lost  their  independence  the 
country  has  been  under  the  successive  sway  of  the  Assyrians,  the 
Babylonians,  the  Medo-Persians,  the  Graeco-Macedonians,  the  Romans, 
the  Saracens,  the  Seljuk  Turks,  the  Mongol  Tartars,  and  for  the  last 
four  centuries  under  the  Ottoman  Turks.  Under  its  present  masters 
the  country  has  everywhere  fallen  into  decay,  and  can  scarcely  be 
said  to  have  any  history ;  though  in  ancient  and  mediaeval  times  it 
was  the  theater  of  many  important  events,  having  witnessed  the  prow- 
ess and  martial  deeds  of  Sennacherib,  Nebuchadnezzar,  Pompey,  Abu- 
bekir  and  Omar,  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  Saladin  and  Richard  the  Lion- 
hearted,  Zingis-Khan  and  Tamerlane. 

Of  all  the  petty  states  of  ancient  Syria  just  mentioned,  the  most 
powerful  and  the  best-known  was  Syria  of  Damascus.  The  city  of 
Damascus  is  the  oldest  known  city  of  the  world,  its  existence  dating 
far  back  before  the  time  of  Abraham,  over  four  thousand  years  ago. 
The  kingdom  of  Damascus  arose  in  the  twelfth  century  before  Christ, 
after  the  Hebrew  king  Saul  had  vanquished  the  King  of  Zobah,  one 
of  the  most  ancient  Syrian  kingdoms.  HADAD,  King  of  Damascus, 
assisted  Hadadezar,  King  of  Zobah,  against  the  great  Hebrew  king 
David,  but  was  defeated  in  a  great  battle  by  David,  who  captured 
Damascus,  Belah  and  Berothai ;  and  Hadad  submitted  to  the  suprem- 
acy of  his  Hebrew  conqueror.  Near  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Solo- 
mon, David's  illustrious  successor,  REZON,  King  of  Damascus,  who 
had  originally  been  a  slave,  revolted  against  the  Hebrew  rule  and 
reestablished  the  independence  of  the  kingdom  of  Damascus.  TAB- 
EIMMON,  King  of  Damascus,  was  contemporary  with  Abijah,  King  of 
Judah,  from  about  B.  C.  960  to  B.  C.  950.  BEN-HADAD  I.,  his  son 
and  successor,  was  contemporary  with  Baasha  in  Israel  and  Asa  in 
Judah,  about  from  B.  C.  950  to  B.  C.  920,  and  warred  with  Baasha 
and  his  successor,  Omri.  BEN-HADAD  II.,  son  and  successor  of  Ben- 
hadad  I.,  was  contemporary  with  Ahab,  King  of  Israel,  about  B.  C. 
900,  and  warred  with  that  monarch.  He  was  a  powerful  monarch, 


Five 
Syrian 
States. 


Damas- 
cus. 


Its 
Hadad. 


Rezon. 


Tab-rim- 

mon. 

Ben- 
hadad  I. 


Ben- 
hadad  II. 


Hazael. 


Ben- 
hadad  III. 


Rezin. 


Fall  of 
Damas- 
cus. 


and  had  thirty-two  vassal  kings  in  his  army.  He  adorned  Damascus 
with  splendid  edifices,  and  did  much  to  advance  the  glory  of  his  king- 
dom. He  was  finally  murdered  treacherously  by  his  servant  HAZAEL, 
who  then  usurped  the  throne  of  Damascus.  Hazael  was  a  great  war- 
rior and  an  able  monarch,  and  reigned  contemporaneously  with  Jehu, 
King  of  Israel,  and  Shalmaneser  II.,  the  Black  Obelisk  King  of  As- 
syria, about  B.  C.  850.  He  won  several  great  victories  over  the  armies 
of  Israel  and  Judah,  wresting  important  territories  from  the  kings  of 
both  of  those  nations,  and  forcing  them  to  pay  him  tribute.  He  also 
seized  Elath,  on  the  Red  Sea,  and  largely  advanced  the  commercial 
prosperity  of  his  dominions.  After  his  death  the  Syrians  deified  him, 
and  thus  rendered  him  an  object  of  worship.  Hazael's  son  and  suc- 
cessor, BEN-HADAD  III.,  contemporary  with  Jehoahaz  and  Joash  of 
Israel,  about  B.  C.  840,  oppressed  the  Israelites,  but  was  three  times 
defeated  by  Joash,  and  lost  the  provinces  which  his  father  had  wrested 
from  the  Israelites.  The  Syrians  of  Damascus  were  now  for  some 
time  tributary  to  Jeroboam  II.,  King  of  Israel.  They,  however,  re- 
covered their  independence  amid  the  dissensions  which  prevailed  in 
Israel  upon  Jeroboam's  death.  REZIN,  the  last  King  of  Damascus, 
became  the  ally  of  Pekah,  King  of  Israel,  against  Ahaz,  King  of 
Judah,  for  the  purpose  of  dethroning  the  latter,  and  putting  a  stran- 
ger named  Tabael  on  the  throne  of  David.  The  allied  kings  besieged 
Jerusalem,  but  without  success.  They,  however,  carried  on  a  preda- 
tory war  during  the  following  year,  and  the  Syrians  returned  to  Da- 
mascus with  much  valuable  booty  and  many  captives.  Ahaz,  in  re- 
venge, sent  valuable  presents  to  Tiglath-Pileser  II.,  King  of  Assyria, 
for  the  purpose  of  securing  his  aid  against  Damascus.  The  Assyrian 
king  at  once  led  an  army  into  Syria,  took  Damascus  and  put  Rezin  to 
death.  Most  of  the  Damascenes  were  carried  captive  to  Kir,  in  Media, 
and  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Damascus  came  to  an  inglorious  end, 
about  B.  C.  732. 

KINGS  OF  DAMASCUS. 


KNOWN  KINGS. 

TIME  OF  REIGN. 

CONTEMPORARY  KINGS. 

Hadad    

About  B.  C.  1040  .  . 

David  in  Israel. 

Rezon     

"      1000  .  . 

Solomon  in  Israel. 

Tab-rirnmon  

«       960-950 

Abi  j  ah  in  Judah. 

Ben-hadad  I 

"      950  920 

Baasha  in  Israel  and  Asa  in  Judah 

Ben-hadad  II  
Hazael    

"      900   ... 
"      850   ... 

Ahab  in  Israel. 
Jehu  in   Israel  and  Shalmaneser   II. 

Ben-hadad  III  

*        *        * 

Rezin    . 

"          "      840  .... 
"           "      745-732. 

in  Assyria. 
Jehoahaz  in  Israel. 

Ahaz  in  Judah  and  Pekah  in  Israel. 

